A Picture is Worth a Thousand Lies: Electronic Imaging and the Future of the Admissibility
of Photographs into Evidence, 18 Rutgers Computer & Tech. L.J. 365, 365 (1992).
107. Sontag, supra note 98, at 5.
108. Id. at 20 (emphasis added).
109. See id. at 90.
110. See Daston & Galison, supra note 102, at 106.
111. Id. at 120.
112. See id. at 113-15.
113. See id. at 110.
114. See id. at 117.
115. See Sontag, supra note 98, at 22.
116. See id. at 105-06.
117. See Jon Lawrence Dartley, Note, Lost Horizons?: Tortious and Philosophical Implications Of Computer Imaging,
19 Rutgers Computer & Tech. L.J. 199, 218 (1993) (citing Walter Benjamin, The Work of Art in the Age of Mechanical
Reproduction, in Illuminations 217 (Hannah Arendt ed. & Harry Zohn trans., Schocken Paperback 1969)
(1955)).
118. Id. at 218-19.
119. See Sontag, supra note 98, at 11.
120. John Tagg, Burden of Representation 4 (1988).
121. Edward Weston, What Is Photographic Beauty?, 46 Camera Craft 254 (1939), reprinted in Photographers
on Photography, at 154 (Nathan Lyons, ed., 1966).
122. Id.
123. 1 Scott, supra note 20, § 41.
124. See id.
125. See 1 id. § 42-47.
126. See 1 id. § 54.
127. Sontag, supra note 98, at 6-7.
128. See id. at 23.
129. See id. at 69.
130. See id.
131. Id. at 5.
132. See 1 Scott, supra note 20, § 1(A).
133. See id.
134. See Luco v. United States, 64 U.S. (23 How.) 515 (1860).
135. See 1 Scott, supra note 20, § 1.
136. See id. § 2.
137. 2 id. § 1001.
138. Franklin v. State, 69 Ga. 37, 43 (1882).
139. See 2 Scott, supra note 20, § 1001.
140. See Guilshan, supra note 106, at 366.
141. "'Relevant evidence' means evidence having any tendency to make the existence of any fact that is of consequence to the determination
of the action more probable or less probable than it would be without the evidence." Fed R. Evid. 401.
142. "[A]ll relevant evidence is admissible, except as otherwise provided by the Constitution of the United States, by Act of Congress, by these rules, or by other rules prescribed by the Supreme Court pursuant to statutory authority. Evidence which is not relevant is not admissible." Fed R. Evid. 402.
143. "The requirement of authentication or identification as a condition precedent to admissibility is satisfied by evidence sufficient
to support a finding that the matter in question is what its proponent claims." .
See Guilshan, supra note 106, at 366.
145. See id. at 367.
146. See id. at 367 n.16.
147. See id. at 367.
148. Fed. R. Evid. 401.
149. See Guilshan, supra note 106, at 367.
150. See Peter Murray, Basic Trial Advocacy 298 (1995).
151. See Federal Judicial Center, Manual for Complex Litigation, Third § 34.35 (1995).
152. See 2 Scott, supra note 20, § 1023.
153. Donald A. Weissman, Discovery: Auxiliary Aids, Exotic Evidence, And The Duty To Detail, Trial, June
1980, at 30.
154. Murray, supra note 150, at 292.
155. See Sontag, supra note 98, at 168.
156. "Although relevant, evidence may be excluded if its probative value is substantially outweighed by the danger of unfair prejudice,
confusion of the issues, or misleading the jury, or by considerations of undue delay, waste of time, or needless presentation
of cumulative evidence." Fed R. Evid. 403.
157. See 2 Scott, supra note 20, § 1001.
158. See id. § 1028.
159. Id.
160. Mauldin v. Upjohn Co., 697 F.2d 644, 648 (5th Cir. 1983) (quoting ).
See Guilshan, supra note 106, at 369.
162. See id.
163. See id.
164. See id.
165. See Evidence: Teaching Materials for An Age of Science and Statutes, supra note 47, at 248.
166. 9 Am. Jur. Proof of Facts 428 (1961).
167. See, e.g., United States v. Stearns, 550 F.2d 1167, 1170 (9th Cir. 1977).
168. .
See, e.g., People v. Slocum, 125 Cal. Rptr. 442, 456 (Cal. Ct. App. 1975).
170. See Murray, supra note 150, at 293.
171. See id. at 295.
172. See id. at 293.
173. See Kenneth B. Hughes & Benjamin J. Cantor, Photographs in Civil Litigation
64-65 (1973).
174. "To prove the content of a writing, recording, or photograph, the original writing, recording, or photograph is required,
except as otherwise provided in these rules or by Act of Congress." http://www2.law.cornell.edu/cgi-bin/foliocgi.exe/fre/query=*/doc/{t283}/hit_headings/words=4/hits_only?Fed. R.
Evid. 1002.
175. See Hughes & Cantor, supra note 173, at 37.
176. See id.
177. 3 John Henry Wigmore, Evidence at Common Law § 790 (1970) (emphasis omitted).
178. See 2 McCormick on Evidence § 214 (4th ed., John William Strong, ed. 1992).
179. See 3 Wigmore, supra note 177, § 790.
180. 2 Scott, supra note 20, § 1023.
181. See id.
182. See, e.g., Sisk v. State, 192 A.2d 108 (Md. 1963).
183. See 2 McCormick, supra note 178, § 214.
184. Bergner v. State, 397 N.E.2d 1012, 1016 (Ind. Ct. App. 1979).
185. Sisk v. State, 204 A.2d 684, 687-88 (Md. 1964).
186. See, e.g., John E. Mouser & James T. Philbin, Photographic Evidence--Is There a Recognized Basis for Admissibility?,
8 Hast. L.J. 310, 312-13 (1957).
187. See People v. Bowley, 382 P.2d 591, 595 (Cal. 1963). The court noted that Wigmore did not consider x-rays to be photographs, and thus not subject to the "pictorial testimony theory," but that other commentators disagreed. See
id. at 595 n.5. See also supra notes 328-337. One should note that, if strictly interpreted, the pictorial testimony theory should not serve as a foundation for an unnoticed
element of a photograph, but also that this distinction does not appear to have commonly been recognized in practice.
188. See, e.g., Mouser & Philbin, supra note 186, at 310.
189. Bergner, 397 N.E.2d at 1016.
190. See Bowley, 382 P.2d at 594. The court, citing People v. Doggett, 188 P.2d 792 (Cal. Dist. Ct. App. 1948) indicated
that even if a photograph could not be authenticated by personal observation, an expert could do so, testifying that it had
not been faked and was not a composite. See id. at 596.
191. See State v. Tatum, 360 P.2d 754, 756 (Wash. 1961).
192. 863 F.2d 1023 (D.C. Cir. 1988).
193. Bergner, 397 N.E.2d at 1017.
194. Tatum, 863 F.2d at 1027.
195. Id. at 1027 (quoting United States v. Blackwell, 694 F.2d 1325, 1330 (D.C. Cir. 1982)).
196. See Guilshan, supra note 106, at 370.
197. See id.
198. See Houts, supra note 19, § 26.01.
199. See infra notes 263-266. But see infra text accompanying note 518.
200. See Andrew Johnson-Laird, Smoking Guns and Spinning Disks, Computer Law., Aug. 1994, at
4. See also supra text accompanying note 185.
201. See supra text accompanying notes 116, 185.
202. See 2 McCormick, supra note 178, § 214.
203. See Hughes & Cantor, supra note 173, at 212-14.
204. See, e.g., Streit v. Kestel, 161 N.E.2d 409, 411 (Ohio App. 1959).
205. See Federal Judicial Center, supra note 151, § 34.35.
206. See id.
207. See Digital snap, Economist, Aug. 30, 1997, at 49.
208. See David Beckman & David Hirch, Digital Cameras Developing as Easy Way to Snap, Store and Send Pictures, ABA J., Mar. 1997, at 84.
209. See Mitchell, supra note 34, at 1.
210. See Sam J. Merrell, Digital Snapshots, Boston Phoenix, Sept. 19, 1997 (Digital Nation), at 13.
211. See id.
212. See Heather Dembert Rafter & William Sloan Coats, From Sampling of Artistic Works to Music Distribution on
the Internet: The Effect of New Digital Technology on Copyright Law, in 17th Annual Institute on Computer Law: The Evolving
Law of the Internet-Commerce, Free Speech, Security, Obscenity and Entertainment, at 140 (PLI Patents, Copyrights, Trademarks, and Literary Property Course Handbook Series No. 471, 1997).
213. See id.
214. See Merrell, supra note 210, at 13.
215. See Digital snap, supra note 207, at 49-50.
216. See Merrell, Digital Snapshots, supra note 210, at 13.
217. The development of color film photography itself was long and slow; the first appellate court case passing on the admissibility
of color photographs as evidence did not come until 1943. See Green v. City and County of Denver, 142 P.2d 277 (Colo. 1943).
218. See Merrell, supra note 210, at 13. More expensive digital cameras use separate CCDs for each color, or three successive exposures through a filter of each color. See id.
219. See id.
220. See id. at 13-14. CCDs are expected to be replaced by CMOS (Complimentary Metal Oxide Semiconductor) chips which
are less expensive to manufacture and require less power. See id. at 14.
221. See Beckman & Hirch, supra note 208, at 84.
222. See Digital snap, supra note 207, at 50.
223. See id. at 49.
224. See id.
225. See id. at 50.
226. See Merrell, supra note 210, at 13.
227. See 1 Scott, supra note 20, § 3.
228. See id.
229. See Mitchell, supra note 26, at 73. Cf. infra text accompanying notes 56-57.
230. See Andy Johnson-Laird, Multimedia and the Law, in Multimedia and the Law at 11 (PLI Patents, Copyrights, Trademarks, and Literary Property Course Handbook Series No. 383, 1994).
231. See Eastman Kodak Co., Digital Imagery in the Courtroom (visited Jan. 8, 1998) <http://www.kodak.de/US/en/cgs/law/filmdig/imagery.shtml>.
232. See Johnson-Laird, supra note 230, at 15.
233. The Child Pornography Prevention Act Of 1995: Hearings on S. 1237, Before the Senate Committee on the Judiciary (June 4, 1996) (statement of Bruce A. Taylor, President and Chief Counsel of the National Law Center for Children and Families), available in Westlaw, 1996 WL 10164796.
234. See Johnson-Laird, supra note 230, at 15.
235. See id.
236. See Mitchell, supra note 26, at 73.
237. For a detailed review of the techniques of digital manipulation, see Mitchell, supra note 34, at 23-30.
238. Bennett Daviss, Picture Perfect, Discover, July 1990, at 55.
239. See Johnson-Laird, supra note 230, at 12.
240. See Benjamin R. Seecof, Comment, Scanning into the Future of Copyrightable Images: Computer-Based Image Processing
Poses a Present Threat, 5 High Tech. L.J. 371, 374 (1990).
241. See id. at 377.
242. See infra note 839.
243. See Guilshan, supra note 106, at 376.
244. Rafter & Coats, supra note 212, at 139.
245. See infra text accompanying notes 672, 732.
246. See infra text accompanying notes 71, 641-646.
247. See Daviss, supra note 238, at 56.
248. See Dartley, supra note 117, at 220-21.
249. See Richard Kammen & Herbert Blitzer, Ensure admissibility of Digital Images, Indiana Lawyer,
Nov. 1, 1995, reprinted in Ensure admissibility of Digital Images (visited Jan. 8, 1998) <http://www.kodak.de/US/en/cgs/law/filmdig/establish.shtml>.
250. See Federal Judicial Center, supra note 151, § 34.35.
251. See Kammen & Blitzer, supra note 249.
252. See id.
253. See Dartley, supra note 117, at 202.
254. See id.
255. See Guilshan, supra note 106, at 372.
256. See Eastman Kodak Co., The Digital Camera as Forensic Tool (visited Jan. 8, 1998) <http://www.kodak.de/us/en/cgs/law/filmdig/tool.shtml>.
257. See id. Kodak notes that digital cameras require more accurate exposure measurement and control than film, but this is offset by the ease with which an image can
be evaluated and immediately reshot. See Eastman Kodak Co., About Digital (visited Jan. 8, 1998) <http://www.kodak.de/us/en/cgs/law/filmdig/digital.shtml>.
258. See Kammen & Blitzer, supra note 249.
259. See id.
260. See Mitchell, supra note 34, at 210.
261. See Fred Ritchin, In Our Own Image 14 (1990).
262. See Mitchell, supra note 26, at 69.
263. See Daviss, supra note 238, at 56. The line between reality and digital forgery perhaps became even more blurred when, in September 1993, the scene
became a reality, with Bill Clinton substituted for Reagan and Yitzhak Rabin for Shamir. See Mitchell, supra note 26, at 69.
264. See Mitchell, supra note 34, at 214.
265. Daviss, supra note 238, at 56.
266. See id. at 57.
267. See Mitchell, supra note 26, at 73.
268. See Dartley, supra note 117, at 219 (citing Walter Benjamin, The Work of Art in the Age of Mechanical Reproduction, in Illuminations
217 (Hannah Arendt ed. & Harry Zohn trans., Schocken Paperback 1969) (1955)).
269. One should also ponder the specter of altered photographs later being introduced in a legal proceeding, such as to serve as
evidence of attendance at a meeting of a board of directors. See supra text accompanying note 264.
270. Daviss, supra note 238, at 57.
271. Id.
272. Mitchell Stephens, What's Fair in Changing Photos? Let Pictures Speculate, Just Like Words, Newsday, Feb. 24, 1994, at 115.
273. "[T]he technology of computer enhanced imagery is . . . undeveloped as a matter of reported case law in its non-medical applications."
Gregory P. Joseph, Modern Visual Evidence § 8.04(1) (1997).
274. See Mitchell, supra note 34, at 7.
275. See id. at 19.
276. See Mitchell, supra note 26, at 73.
277. See Rafter & Coats, supra note 212, at 139.
278. See Mitchell, supra note 34, at 225.
279. See 1 Scott, supra note 20, § 3.
280. See id. § 3.
281. See Federal Judicial Center, supra note 151, § 34.35.
282. See Guilshan, supra note 106, at 378.
283. See infra text accompanying notes 651-654.
284. R. Bruce Beckner, Advance Sheet, 22 Litigation 57, 59 (1996).
285. Id.
286. See Beckner, supra note 284, at 59.
287. See Fed. R. Evid. 1001(3) ("If data are stored in a computer or similar device, any printout or other output readable by sight, shown to reflect the
data accurately, is an 'original.'").
288. See Guilshan, supra note 106, 375-76.
289. See Beckner, supra note 284, at 59-60.
290. See id. at 60. See infra text accompanying notes 56-57.
291. See 28 U.S.C. § 2076 (1997).
292. See Guilshan, supra note 106, at 378.
293. See id.
294. See Potter, supra note 34, at 503-04. Potter states that of particular concern are causes of action in which the truth is especially critical, such
as libel. See id. at 505.
295. See supra text accompanying note 181.
296. See Hampton Dellinger, Words Are Enough: The Troublesome Use of Photographs, Maps, and Other Images in Supreme Court Opinions, 110 Harv. L. Rev. 1704, 1750 (1997).
297. See id. For example, in Capitol Square Review and Advisory Board v. Pinette, 115 S. Ct. 2440, 2474 (1995) (Stevens,
J., dissenting), a photograph was attached to a dissenting opinion. The low angle from which the picture was shot allegedly
makes a ten-foot Latin cross appear substantially taller than it is. See Dellinger, supra note 296, at 1707.
298. See Murray, supra note 150, at 295. See also supra text accompanying notes 146-157.
299. See Potter, supra note 34, at 504.
300. See Guilshan, supra note 106, at 378.
301. See id. at 379.
302. See id.
303. See Dartley, supra note 117, at 215.
304. See 2 McCormick, supra note 178, § 214. See also supra text accompanying notes 202-204.
305. See Hughes & Cantor, supra note 173, at 212-14.
306. See supra text accompanying notes 150-159.
307. See Sternbach, supra note 69, at 1102.
308. See id.
309. See Madison, supra note 35, at 715.
310. See Guilshan, supra note 106, at 379.
311. See supra text accompanying note 187.
312. See Federal Judicial Center, supra note 151, § 34.35.
313. See, e.g., Commonwealth v. Roller, 100 Pa. Super. 125, 127 (1930).
314. See McGoorty v. Benhart, 27 N.E.2d 289, 293, 295 (Ill. App. Ct. 1940).
315. See, e.g., Haley v. Haley, 103 N.Y.S.2d 717, 718-19 (Sup. Ct. 1950).
316. Houts, supra note 19, § 11.10.
317. See Eastman Kodak Co., supra note 249. See also supra text accompanying notes 345, 353.
318. See Federal Judicial Center, supra note 151, § 34.35.
319. See Sternbach, supra note 69, at 1139.
320. See id.
321. See id.
322. See id.
323. See id. at 1140.
324. See id. at 1139.
325. See id.
326. See 3 Wigmore, supra note 177, § 792.
327. See Guilshan, supra note 106, at 379.
328. See 3 Wigmore, supra note 177, § 795.
329. Id. § 795.
330. See id. § 795a
331. See id. § 795.
332. See id.
333. See id.
334. See id.
335. See Madison, supra note 35, at 741.
336. See Frye v. United States, 293 F. 1013 (D.C. Cir. 1923).
337. See Vicki S. Menard, Admission of Computer Generated Visual Evidence: Should There Be Clear Standards?,
6 Software L.J. 325, 335 (1993).
338. See Mitchell, supra note 34, at 30.
339. See supra text accompanying note 170.
340. See Kammen & Blitzer, supra note 249.
341. See id. A further aid is the use of CD-ROMs with embedded serial numbers; unlike rolls of film, it would be virtually
impossible to substitute an altered disc. See id.
342. See id.
343. See id. See also supra text accompanying notes 145, 150-152.
344. See Kammen & Blitzer, supra note 249.
345. Tagg, supra note 120, at 95-96 (quoting H. Pountney, Police Photography
3 (1971)).
346. See supra text accompanying notes 256-258.
347. Eastman Kodak Co., supra note 231.
348. See Eastman Kodak Co., supra note 249. See also Bill Callahan, Trial opens in fatal beatings of women, San Diego Union & Trib., Oct. 3, 1995, at B3.
349. See Eastman Kodak Co., Forensic Imaging Case Studies (visited Jan. 8, 1998) <http://www.kodak.de/us/en/cgs/law/filmdig/forensic.shtml>.
350. See id.
351. See id.
352. See id. See also Kevin Ebi, Neighbor Is Found Guilty in Slaying of College Student: Case Focused on Enhanced
Palm Print, Seattle Times, Jan. 10, 1996, at B1; Kevin Ebi, Bloody Print Is Trial Focus, Seattle Times, Dec. 12, 1995, at B1.
353. See Eastman Kodak Co., supra note 349.
354. See Mitchell, supra note 34, at 51.
355. See id. at 196; James Black, The Spirit-Photograph Fraud, Sci. Am., Oct. 1922, at 224. No less an authority on detective work than Arthur Conan Doyle was taken in by spirit photographers. See id.
356. See Brief of the American Civil Liberties Union, et al., as Amici Curiae, at 14, Free Speech Coalition v. Reno (9th Cir., filed Sept. 26, 1997) (No. 97-16536).
357. This Paper does not attempt to review all law regarding child pornography, but merely that portion of it which is most relevant
for digital imaging. For a more expansive review, see, e.g., Jeffrey Gold et al., Comment, Brief for Petitioner, The Thirteenth
Annual John Marshall Law School National Moot Court Competition in Information Technology and Privacy Law, 13 J. Marshall J. Computer & Info. L. 505 (1995).
358. See infra text accompanying notes 430-432, 462-463.
359. See infra text accompanying notes 363-386.
360. See infra text accompanying notes 436-449, 487-488, 490-491.
361. See infra text accompanying note 617.
362. See Pub. L. No. 95-225, 92 Stat. 7 (1978).
363. See 458 U.S. 747 (1982).
364. See Brief of the American Civil Liberties Union, supra note 356, at 13.
365. Ferber, 458 U.S. at 758-59.
366. See id.
367. See id.
368. Id. at 765. The court did, however, note that a secondary justification for a ban on child pornography was its potential
use by abusers to weaken the inhibitions of other children. See id. at 759.
369. See id. at 763.
370. Id.
371. Id. at 762.
372. See Brief of the American Civil Liberties Union, supra note 356, at 13. But see infra text accompanying note 619.
373. See Pub. L. No. 98-292, 98 Stat. 204 (1984).
374. In December 1997, Massachusetts became the 43rd state to criminalize possession of child pornography. See Doris Sue Wong, Tougher child porn
law applauded, Boston Globe, Dec. 12, 1997, at B8.
375. 495 U.S. 103 (1990).
376. See id. at 111.
377. Id.
378. Id. at 103.
379. See id. at 111 n.7 (citing Dep't of Justice, Attorney General's Commission on Pornography, Final Report 649 (1986) ("A child who is reluctant to engage in sexual activity with an adult or to pose for sexually
explicit photos can sometimes be convinced by viewing other children having 'fun' participating in the activity")). See
also supra note 368.
380. 503 U.S. 540 (1992).
381. See id. at 548-49.
382. 513 U.S. 64 (1994).
383. See id. at 72.
384. The Child Pornography Prevention Act Of 1995: Hearings on S. 1237 Before the Senate Committee on the Judiciary (June 4, 1996) (statement of Frederick Schauer, Frank Stanton Professor of the First Amendment at the Kennedy School of Government, Harvard University, and Visiting Professor of Law, Harvard Law School), available in Westlaw, 1996 WL 10164718.
385. State v. Stoneman, 920 P.2d 535, 540 (Or. 1995).
386. Id. at 540 n.3. The dissent, however, argued that "simulations" should be understood to include footage of actual
children who had not engaged in sexual conduct, but only had been made to seem so. "For example, a film may portray a realistic
image of what appears to be a sexual act by a child when, in reality, the image is a mere simulation created from film of
an actual child innocently playing, dancing, or sleeping while fully clothed. In that circumstance, the conduct of both the
child and film producer is perfectly lawful and not harmful to the child." Id. at 554 (Durham, J., dissenting).
387. See generally Philip Noble & Eric Nadler, United States of America vs. Sex: How the Meese Commission Lied About Pornography (1986).
388. See Dep't of Justice, supra note 379, at 405 n.70.
389. See id., at 410-13.
390. Id. at 405.
391. Ronald W. Adelman, The Constitutionality of Congressional Efforts to Ban Computer-Generated Child Pornography: A First Amendment Assessment of S. 1237, 14 J. Marshall J. Computer & Info. L. 483, 491 (1996).
392. See Dep't of Justice, supra note 379, at 405.
393. See id. at 411.
394. See id.
395. See id. at 406.
396. See id. at 411.
397. See id. at 412-13.
398. See 458 U.S. at 759.
399. See 495 U.S. at 111 n.7.
400. See Child Pornography Prevention Act of 1995, S. Rep. 104-358, at 12 (1996).
401. Dep't of Justice, supra note 379, at 411 n.74.
402. See The Child Pornography Prevention Act Of 1995 (statement of Bruce A. Taylor), supra note 233.
403. See The Child Pornography Prevention Act Of 1995 (statement of Frederick Schauer), supra note 384.
404. See Dep't of Justice, supra note 379, at 412.
405. See id.
406. See, e.g., T.J. Hiles, Comment, Civil Forfeiture of Property for Drug Offenders Under Illinois and Federal Statute: Zero Tolerance, Zero Exceptions, 25 J. Marshall L. Rev. 389, 410 (1992).
407. See supra text accompanying note 529.
408. See Felice Flannery Lewis, Literature, Obscenity, and Law 225 (1976).
409. See Kaplan v. California, 413 U.S. 115, 118-19 (1973).
410. See Lewis, supra note 408, at 225.
411. See Jeffrey J. Kent & Scott D. Truesdell, Spare the Child: The Constitutionality of Criminalizing Possession of Child Pornography, 68 Oregon L. Rev. 363, 370 (1989) (citing United States v. Langley, No. 86-60010 (D. Or. Jan. 16, 1987)).
412. See infra text accompanying notes 515-517.
413. See Russell W. Galloway, Basic Free Speech Analysis, 31 Santa Clara L. Rev. 883, 900 (1991).
414. See id.
415. Kent & Truesdell, supra note 411, at 365 n.8.
416. See Kenneth V. Lanning, Collectors, in Child Pornography and Sex Rings 83 (Ann Wolbert
Burgess, ed. 1984).
417. See id.
418. See id.
419. See, e.g., Robert Corn-Revere, New Technology and the First Amendment: Breaking the Cycle of Repression, 17 Hast. Comm./Ent. L.J. 247, 277-78 (1994).
420. Professor Richard H. Fallon, Jr. of Harvard Law School, who was a clerk to Justice Powell when Ferber was before the Court, often has recounted to his classes that he recommended against granting certiorari, because the assertion that child pornography
was a separate proscribable category under the First Amendment was without merit; the Justices disagreed, 9-0.
421. Donald E. Lively, Fear and the Media: A First Amendment Horror Show, 69 Minn. L. Rev. 1071, 1096 (1985). See also infra text accompanying notes 487-488, 490-491.
422. Pub. L. 104-208, 110 Stat. 3009-26 (1996).
423. 18 U.S.C. § 2256 (1997).
424. See 18 U.S.C. § 2256 (1997).
425. See 18 U.S.C. § 2252A(c) (1997) (an affirmative defense lies if "(1) the alleged child pornography was produced using
an actual person or persons engaging in sexually explicit conduct; (2) each such person was an adult at the time the material
was produced; and (3) the defendant did not advertise, promote, present, describe, or distribute the material in such a manner
as to convey the impression that it is or contains a visual depiction of a minor engaging in sexually explicit conduct").
426. See 720 Ill. Comp. Stat. Ann. 5/11-20 (West 1997), amended by 1997 Ill. Leg. Serv. P.A.
90-68 (West). Canada and the United Kingdom also have adopted similar legislation. See Jennifer Stewart, Comment, If This Is the Global Community, We Must
Be on the Bad Side of Town: International Policing of Child Pornography on the Internet, 20 Hous. J. Int'l L. 205, 218 & nn.88-89 (1997)
427. See John Schwartz, New Law on 'Virtual' Child Porn Is Criticized: Legitimate Works May be at Risk, Seattle Times, Oct. 6, 1996, at A24.
428. See Senate Panel Backs Hatch's Anti-Kiddie-Porn Bill, Salt Lake Trib., July 26, 1996, at A19.
429. Id.
430. Biden's Legislation to Crack Down on Child Pornography, to Give Longer Prison Sentences for Rape, Become Law, Gov't
Press Releases, Oct. 4, 1996, available in Westlaw, 1996 WL 11125623.
431. See id. See also infra text accompanying notes 463, 643.
432. Id.
433. See 142 Cong. Rec. S11,900 (daily ed. Sept. 30, 1996) (statement of Sen. Biden).
434. See supra notes and text accompanying notes 422-425.
435. See Child Pornography Prevention Act of 1995, S. Rep. 104-358, supra note 400, at 31. The only members of the Senate Committee on the Judiciary to doubt the constitutionality of and oppose the Act outright were Russell Feingold (D-WI) and Paul Simon (D-IL).
436. No. 97-00281, 1997 WL 487758 (N.D. Cal. Aug. 12, 1997). The case is currently on appeal in the Ninth Circuit. Maria Seminerio, ACLU, others file appeal to simulated online kiddie porn law (last modified Sept. 30, 1997) <http://www.zdnet.com/zdnn/content/zdnn/0930/zdnn/0006.html>. But see infra note 604.
437. See Free Speech Coalition v. Reno, No. 97-00281, 1997 WL 487758, at *1.
438. Id. at *2.
439. Id.
440. Id.
441. Id.
442. See id.
443. See id.
444. Id.
445. See id.
446. See id. at *6 (citing Defendant's Memorandum in Support of Motion for Summary Judgment, at 20, Free Speech Coalition v. Reno, 1997 WL 487758 (N.D. Cal. Aug. 12, 1997) (No. 97-00281).
447. See Free Speech Coalition v. Reno, No. 97-00281, 1997 WL 487758, at *4.
448. See id. at *5.
449. Id.
450. See supra text accompanying notes 363-371.
451. See John Quigley, Child Pornography and the Right to Privacy, 43 Fla. L. Rev. 347, 392 (1991).
452. See Cheryl Wetzstein, Simulated child porn is Senate bill's target: Technology ahead of law, Hatch says, Wash. Times, June 5, 1996, at A8.
453. See The Child Pornography Prevention Act Of 1995 (statement of Frederick Schauer), supra note 384.
454. Debra Gersh Hernandez, Papers threatened with 'porn' purge, Editor & Publisher, July 13, 1996, at 22.
455. The Child Pornography Prevention Act Of 1995: Hearings on S. 1237 Before the Senate Committee on the Judiciary (June 4, 1996) (statement of Dee Jepsen, President, "Enough is Enough!"), available in Westlaw, 1996 WL 10164703.
456. See id.
457. Id.
458. See The Child Pornography Prevention Act Of 1995: Hearings on S. 1237 Before the Senate Committee on the Judiciary (June 4, 1996) (statement of Senator Orrin G. Hatch), available in Westlaw, 1996 WL 10164727.
459. See id.
460. See id.
461. See supra text accompanying note 282.
462. Good Anti-Porn Law, Salt Lake Trib., Oct. 6, 1996, at AA1.
463. The Child Pornography Prevention Act Of 1995 (statement of Bruce A. Taylor), supra note 233. See also infra text accompanying note 643.
464. See supra text accompanying notes 393-396.
465. Candyce Beneke, Brief for Respondent, The Thirteenth Annual John Marshall Law School National Moot Court Competition in Information Technology and Privacy Law, 13 J. Marshall J. Computer & Info. L. 537, 556 (1995)
466. Debra D. Burke, The Criminalization of Virtual Child Pornography: A Constitutional Question, 34 Harv. J. on Legis. 439, 466 (1997).
467. See id. at 470.
468. Good Anti-Porn Law, supra note 462, at AA1.
469. See supra text accompanying notes 364, 384.
470. See Joanna H. Kim, Comment, Cyber-Porn Obscenity: The Viability of Local Community Standards and the Federal
Venue Rules in the Computer Network Age, 15 Loy. L.A. Ent. L.J. 415, 424 (1995).
471. The claim that altered images were not previously prosecutable as child pornography is questionable, given that David O. Cobb,
a teacher at Phillips Academy in Andover, New Hampshire, was convicted for several hundred composite photos he had of children's heads imposed onto pornographic pictures of adult
bodies. See The Child Pornography Prevention Act Of 1995 (statement of Bruce A. Taylor), supra note 233.
472. See Brief of the American Civil Liberties Union, supra note 356, at 21.
473. See Burke, supra note 466, at 470. See also infra text accompanying notes 853-861.
474. See Beneke, supra note 465, at 556.
475. See infra text accompanying notes 641-646.
476. See Brief of the American Civil Liberties Union, supra note 356, at 22.
477. 458 U.S. 747, 759 (1982).
478. Cf. Hustler Magazine v. Falwell, 485 U.S. 46 (1988) (rejecting emotional distress claim based on illustration portraying respondent having a drunken incestuous
rendezvous with his mother in an outhouse). But see infra note 480.
479. See, e.g., Hernandez, supra note 454, at 22.
480. In Hustler Magazine, that Jerry Falwell was a public figure was not in dispute. See 485 U.S. at 57. In contrast, the tort of emotional distress is still
a valid cause of action for nonpublic figures--perhaps such as Falwell's mother. See Rodney A. Smolla, Emotional Distress and the First Amendment: An Analysis of Hustler v. Falwell, Ariz. St. L.J. 423, 463-67 (1988).
481. Lanning, Collectors, supra note 416, at 83.
482. See Burke, supra note 466, at 466.
483. See id.
484. See Jennifer Gregg, Note, Caught in the Web: Entrapment in Cyberspace, 19 Hast. Comm./Ent. L.J. 157, 162 (1996) (section entitled "Online Child Pornography and the Current Response of Law Enforcement" in fact discusses
solicitation).
485. See, e.g., Carlin Romano, Between the Motion and the Act, Nation, Nov. 15, 1993, at 563.
486. Catherine A. MacKinnon, Only Words 36 (1993) ("To say it, is to do it, and to do it, is to say it.") But even MacKinnon premises her work on that sex "is happening," to the bodies of real people. See id. at 26.
487. See supra text accompanying note 356, infra text accompanying note 496.
488. See Brief of Appellants, at 12, Free Speech Coalition v. Reno, No. 97-16536, 1997 WL 487758 (9th Cir., filed Sept. 26, 1997).
489. See, e.g., Dep't of Justice, supra note 379, at 409. But see infra text accompanying note 539.
490. See Charles Platt, Anarchy Online § 2 (Net Sex) 91 (1996).
491. See Lawrence A. Stanley, The Child Porn Myth, 7 Cardozo Arts & Ent. L.J. 295, 297 (1989).
492. Good Anti-Porn Law, supra note 462, at AA1. See also infra note 617.
493. See Quigley, supra note 451, at 393 n.338.
494. See S. Rep. 104-358, supra note 400, at 20.
495. The Child Pornography Prevention Act Of 1995 (statement of Senator Orrin G. Hatch), supra note 458.
496. Wetzstein, supra note 452, at A8.
497. See supra text accompanying notes 390-392.
498. See Burke, supra note 466, at 471. Burke does not address the constitutionality of such measures, other than cursorily noting the light burden required in other contexts and in child pornography prosecutions,
such as proof that it moved in interstate commerce. See id.
499. Congress Broadens Rules on What Can Be Called Child Pornography, Sacramento Bee, Oct. 5, 1996, at A11 (quoting Bruce A. Taylor, President of the National Law Center for Children and Families).
500. See Bruce Handy, Have Gigabytes, Will Act: Is a Digital George Burns the Answer to the Movies' Malaise? We'll Find Out!, Time, Sept. 1, 1997, at 72.
501. Id. (quoting Dennis Muren).
502. Reply in Support of Defendant's Memorandum for Judgment on the Pleadings or Alternatively for Summary Judgment, at 2, Free Speech Coalition v. Reno, 1997 WL 487758 (N.D. Cal. Aug. 12, 1997) (No. 97-00281).
503. See The Child Pornography Prevention Act Of 1995 (statement of Senator Orrin G. Hatch), supra note 458.
504. Commentators frequently note that such images can be created, but fail to address if they are being created.
Cf. infra text accompanying notes 475-476, 672, 732.
505. See Brief of Appellants, supra note 488, at 41 (citing American Library Ass'n v. Reno, 33 F.3d 78, 90 (D.C. Cir. 1995)). See also infra text accompanying note 600.
506. See Quigley, supra note 451, at 391-92.
507. See Stanley, supra note 491, at 327. See, e.g., United States v. Marquardt, 949 F.2d 283 (9th Cir. 1991).
508. In other contexts, photographs may not be used as proof of age of persons depicted. See Quigley, supra note
451, at 392.
509. See T. Christopher Donnelly, Note, Protection of Children from Use in Pornography: Towards Constitutional and Enforceable Legislation, 12 U. Mich. J. of Law Reform 295, 320 (1979).
510. See United States v. Nolan, 818 F.2d 1015, 1018 (1st Cir. 1987).
511. Cf. supra text accompanying note 355.
512. See supra text accompanying notes 292-294.
513. See Nolan, 818 F.2d at 1018.
514. Id. at 1017-18.
515. Id. at 1019.
516. Id.
517. Id. at 1019-20.
518. The Child Pornography Prevention Act Of 1995 (statement of Bruce A. Taylor), supra note 233.
519. See The Child Pornography Prevention Act Of 1995 (statement of Frederick Schauer), supra note 384.
520. See Burke, supra note 466, at 439. See also Aman v. State, 409 S.E.2d 645, 646 (Ga. 1991) (construing the statutory term "depict a minor"
to be required to be understood "as limited to any photographic representation that was made of a human being who at that
time was a minor").
521. See id. Proponents of the Act often, incorrectly, assert otherwise. See David B. Johnson, Comment, Why
the Possession of Computer-Generated Child Pornography Can Be Constitutionally Prohibited, 4 Alb. L.J. Sci. & Tech. 311, 327 (1994).
522. See Complaint for Declaratory and Injunctive Relief at 10, Free Speech Coalition v. Reno, 1997 WL 487758 (N.D. Cal. Aug. 12, 1997) (No. 97-00281).
523. See United States v. Thomas, 74 F.3d 701, 708 (6th Cir. 1996); United States v. Maxwell, 42 M.J. 568, 580 (A.F. Ct. Crim. App. 1995), rev'd on other
grounds, 45 M.J. 406 (C.A.A.F. 1996).
524. 18 U.S.C. § 1465 (1997), amended by Pub. L. 104-104, Title V, § 507(b), 110 Stat. 137 (1996).
525. See John C. Scheller, Note, PC Peep Show: Computers, Privacy, and Child Pornography, 27 J. Marshall L. Rev. 989, 1009 (1994). (citing 18 U.S.C. § 2251(C)(2)(b) (1997)).
526. In 1994, no state or federal law specifically addressed simulated child pornography, because it did not exist, or at least
so one commentator asserts. See Johnson, supra note 521, at 324.
527. State v. Cohen, 696 So. 2d 435, 438 (Fla. Dist. Ct. App. 1997).
528. See Johnson, supra note 521, at 329-30.
529. See Enough Is Enough, Congress Takes a Stand Against Computerized Child Porn (last modified Apr. 25, 1997) <http://www.enough.org/netguard/congress.htm>.
530. The Child Pornography Prevention Act Of 1995 (statement of Bruce A. Taylor), supra note 233.
531. See United States v. Nolan, 818 F.2d 1015, 1018 (1st Cir. 1987). Cf. supra text accompanying notes 66, 169-172.
532. See State v. Cohen, 696 So. 2d 435, 437 n.2 (Fla. Dist. Ct. App. 1997) (issue not raised on appeal).
533. See, e.g., United States v. Kimbrough, 69 F.3d 723, 733 (5th Cir. 1995) (defense unsuccessfully alleged to jury that
images at issue had been altered and were not of actual children).
534. The Child Pornography Prevention Act Of 1995 (statement of Bruce A. Taylor), supra note 233.
535. See supra note and text accompanying note 533.
536. See Burke, supra note 466, at 472.
537. See Dep't of Justice, supra note 379, at 410.
538. See Stanley, supra note 491, at 311; Stewart, supra note 426, at 211. See also supra text accompanying note 236.
539. See Kim, supra note 470, at 415.
540. Laurie Sullivan Maddox, Hatch Targets Computer Porn, Salt Lake Trib., June 5, 1996, at A3 (citing DiGregory). See also Scheller, supra note 525, at 989-91.
541. See supra text accompanying notes 648-650.
542. See Platt, supra note 490, § 2 (Net Sex) 73.
543. Id., § 2 (Net Sex) 89.
544. The Child Pornography Prevention Act Of 1995 (statement of Dee Jepsen), supra note 455.
545. See Stanley, supra note 491, at 299.
546. S. Rep. 104-358, supra note 400, at 13.
547. But proponents of the Act even acknowledge that child pornography, in focusing on actual children, is distinct from obscenity, which is viewer-focused.
See Beneke, supra note 465, at 555.
548. See Good Anti-Porn Law, supra note 462, at AA1.
549. See Defendant's Memorandum of Points and Authorities in Opposition to Plaintiff's Motion for Summary Judgment, at
10, Free Speech Coalition v. Reno, 1997 WL 487758 (N.D. Cal. Aug. 12, 1997) (No. 97-00281).
550. Id. at 2.
551. See Brief of the American Civil Liberties Union, supra note 356, at 18.
552. See supra text accompanying notes 485-486.
553. The Child Pornography Prevention Act Of 1995 (statement of Frederick Schauer), supra note 384.
554. The Child Pornography Prevention Act Of 1995 (statement of Bruce A. Taylor), supra note 233.
555. See Laurence H. Tribe, American Constitutional Law § 12-16 n.71 (2d ed. 1988).
556. New York v. Ferber, 458 U.S. 747, 757-58 (1982) (emphasis added). It is true that this compelling interest may serve to protect children who
are not Americans, given that much child pornography today is believed to be produced overseas. See Scheller, supra
note 525, at 1000-01. But this does not change the fact that they are real children.
557. See Adelman, supra note 391, at 487.
558. See id. at 488-89.
559. See id. at 488.
560. See Quigley, supra note 451, at 364.
561. See id. at 363.
562. See id. at 367 & n.175.
563. Dep't of Justice, supra note 379, at 406.
564. The Child Pornography Prevention Act Of 1995 (statement of Bruce A. Taylor), supra note 233.
565. See The Child Pornography Prevention Act Of 1995: Hearings on S. 1237 Before the Senate Committee on the Judiciary (June 4, 1996) (statement of Dr. Victor Cline, Professor Emeritus of Psychology at the University of Utah), available in Westlaw, 1996 WL 10164705.
566. See Kent & Truesdell, supra note 411 at 366.
567. See Dep't of Justice, supra note 379, at 407.
568. See Brief of the American Booksellers Foundation for Free Expression, et al., as Amici Curiae in Support of Appellant, at 12, Free Speech Coalition v. Reno, 1997 WL 487758 (9th Cir., filed Sept. 26, 1997) (No. 97-16536) (citing Dennis Howitt, Pornography and the paedophile: Is it criminogenic?, 68 British J. of Medical Psychology 15, 24 (1995)).
569. See Stanley, supra note 491, at 333.
570. See id. at 301.
571. See Adelman, supra note 391, at 491.
572. Cf. American Booksellers Association, Inc. v. Hudnut, 771 F.2d 323, 328 (7th Cir. 1985), summ. aff'd, 475 U.S. 1001 (1986).
573. See Schwartz, supra note 427, at A24.
574. See 395 U.S. 444 (1969).
575. See id. at 448.
576. See 394 U.S. 557 (1969).
577. See id. at 566.
578. John Schwartz, New Law Expanding Legal Definition of Child Pornography Draws Fire, Wash. Post, Oct. 4, 1996, at A10 (quoting Eric M. Freedman).
579. See Johnson, supra note 521, at 330. See also Burke, supra note 466, at 461-62 (noting that sexual arousal does not equal sexual abuse, a correlation is not causation, and seduction is not
an immediate action).
580. See The Child Pornography Prevention Act Of 1995 (statement of Frederick Schauer), supra note 384.
581. See supra text accompanying notes 487-488, 490-491.
582. See Breakpoint, 3/96, #11, As abhorrent as the real thing (last modified Oct. 10, 1996) <http://users.vnet.net/cgmac/geo/breakpoint/bp396_11.html>.
583. See, e.g., Calvin Klein Goes a Step Too Far: What can be done with Calvin Klein?, Omaha World-Herald, Sept. 12, 1995, at 8.
584. But in effect in fact was to increase Calvin Klein's sales. See Tabitha Soren, Not All Sexualized Child Images Are Pornographic, Seattle Post-Intelligencer, Dec. 19, 1995, at A15. See infra text accompanying notes 619, 630-635.
585. But see Calvin Klein Goes a Step Too Far, supra note 583, at 8 ("The step Klein took was right into the dark zone of pandering to child molesters, pedophiles and assorted other perverts"), Soren, supra note 584, at A15 (quoting Joann Mazza). Cf. supra text accompanying notes 487-488, 490-491.
586. Dateline NBC (NBC television broadcast, Sept. 12, 1995), available in Westlaw, 1995 WL 6296482 (quoting Margorie Hines).
587. See Soren, supra note 584, at A15.
588. See supra text accompanying note 425.
589. Amy Harmon, Virtual Child Porn Just as Illegal, L.A. Times, Oct. 7, 1996 at D3 (quoting Daniel E. Katz).
590. Enough Is Enough, supra note 529.
591. The Meese Commission anticipated this reasoning, and explicitly renounced it. See Adelman, supra note 391, at 491. But see The Child Pornography Prevention Act Of 1995 (statement of Bruce A. Taylor), supra note 233.
592. See The Child Pornography Prevention Act Of 1995 (statement of Dr. Victor Cline), supra note 565.
593. See id.
594. See id.
595. The Child Pornography Prevention Act Of 1995 (statement of Frederick Schauer), supra note 384 ("it is extremely unlikely that a majority of the Supreme Court could be persuaded that the proposed extension is necessary").
596. See Enough Is Enough, supra note 529.
597. See 18 U.S.C. § 2256 (1997).
598. Harmon, supra note 589. at D3 (quoting Daniel E. Katz).
599. See Seminerio, supra note 436.
600. See Scott Harris, Mother Tells Porn Trial of Daughter's Role in Films, L.A. Times, April 27, 1989, (Metro), at 2. See also Stanley, supra note 491, at 331.
601. Complaint for Declaratory and Injunctive Relief, supra note 522, at 7; Plaintiffs' Reply to Defendant's Opposition to Plaintiff's Motion for Summary Judgment, at 4, Free Speech Coalition v. Reno, 1997 WL 487758 (N.D. Cal. Aug. 12, 1997) (No. 97-16536). Cf. supra text accompanying note 611. The Economist astutely observes that "[n]ot only are Americans hypersensitive about the exposure of young flesh, they are hypocritical
too. They consider it perfectly acceptable, nay wholesomely American, for young teenagers to prance about semi-clad as majorettes
or cheerleaders. But they are shocked--shocked--at the sexual innuendo of Calvin Klein's recently withdrawn jeans advertisements." Suffer little children: Americans' overprotection of children against pedophilia, Economist, Sept. 23, 1995, at 24. See supra text accompanying notes 583-588.
602. See, e.g., Brief of the American Civil Liberties Union, supra note 356, at 7.
603. See id. at 7-8 (citing 117 S.Ct. 2329, 2342 (1997)).
604. Cf. supra text accompanying note 590. As this Paper was being completed, U.S. District Court Judge Gene Carter held the Act unconstitutional as applied to images that "appear" to be children in United States v. Hilton, No. 97-78-P-C, slip. op. (D. Me. Mar. 30, 1998)
(citing 18 U.S.C. § 2252A(a)(5)(B) (1997)). Carter decided that the statute was both vague and overbroad. Id.
at 3. Carter's decision, however, denied that Ferber rendered the Act unconstitutional, see id. at 4-5 n.2, and suggested that under Osborne harmful secondary effects are a sufficient justification for the Act, see id. at 5-6.
605. See Schwartz, supra note 427, at A24.
606. Defendant's Memorandum of Points and Authorities in Opposition to Plaintiff's Motion for Summary Judgment, supra
note 549, at 2.
607. Reynolds Holding, Fallout From Child Pornography Act / "Kiddie porn" law has apparently scared off potential distributors
of a variety of projects. Do we care?, San Francisco Chron., Aug. 3, 1997, at 4Z5 Indeed, the government speaks with a forked tongue, elsewhere claiming that the Act was specifically
intended to prohibit computer-generated images of children. See Defendant's Memorandum of Points and Authorities
in Opposition to Plaintiff's Motion for Summary Judgment, supra note 549, at 2 (Act "enacted to eradicate computer generated child pornography, which presents realistic but simulated images"); S. Rep. 104-358, supra note 400, at 18 (concluding computer-generated images deserve no First Amendment protection).
608. See Schwartz, supra note 578, at A10.
609. See id. See also supra note 425.
610. See Defendant's Memorandum of Points and Authorities in Opposition to Plaintiff's Motion for Summary Judgment, supra
note 549, at 13. See also, e.g., supra text accompanying note 446 (Act explicitly intended to apply to computer-generated images).
611. See Schwartz, supra note 427, at A24. In the current production of Lolita, starring Jeremy Irons,, Lolita is portrayed by an adult body-double at strategic moments. See Holding, supra note 607, at 4Z5. All of the actors involved in sex scenes in Kids likewise are over 18. See David Ansen, Controversy: 'Kids' for Adults, Newsweek, Feb. 20, 1995, at 69.
612. See Doug Desjardins, Video Industry Awaits Verdict on New Kiddie Porn Law, Video Store,
Feb. 2, 1997, at 9.
613. See Wetzstein, supra note 452, at A8.
614. See Holding, supra note 607, at 4Z5.
615. See Wetzstein, supra note 452, at A8.
616. See The Child Pornography Prevention Act Of 1995: Hearings on S. 1237 Before the Senate Committee on the Judiciary (June 4, 1996) (statement of Judith F. Krug, Director, Office For Intellectual Freedom, American Library Association), available in Westlaw, 1996 WL 10164704.
617. See Wetzstein, supra note 452, at A8. Legitimate purposes are generally conceded to include parental, medical, scientific , law enforcement, and similar
ends. See The Child Pornography Prevention Act Of 1995 (statement of Bruce A. Taylor), supra note 233. Debate continues as to when artistic photographs of children, such as by Jock Sturges and David Hamilton, sufficiently "sexualize" them to lose the protection of the First Amendment. See, e.g., J.R. Moehringer, Photographic Art or Child Porn? Controversy Roars, Seattle Times,
Apr. 19 1998, at A6.
618. See, e.g., John Parker, Judge Rules Video Seizures Unconstitutional, Daily Oklahoman, Dec. 27, 1997, at 1 (based on a judge's oral ruling that film comprised child pornography, police seized copies at libraries,
video stores, and private homes).
619. See Desjardins, supra note 612, at 9; Holding, supra note 607, at 4Z5. Opponents have claimed that the movie "could do for paedophilia what Tiger Woods . . . has done for golf: glamorise it." Babylon can be a hard sell, Economist, Oct. 11, 1997, at 108. But industry insiders have predicted that such notoriety will in fact swell the film's audiences
and revenues. Id. Cf. infra notes 630-635. Lolita does not make use of digital simulations, but does use a "body double" for underage star Dominique Swain in explicit scenes. See Burke, supra note 466, at 441 n.10.
620. See Steve Morse, Covers that rock the senses, Boston Globe, Feb. 10, 1995, at 59 (quoting Jeri Heiden).
621. Id. at 59 (quoting Jeri Heiden). Strangely, Nirvana's album Nevermind, which features a nude--and real--4-month old boy, appears to have attracted no attention. See Michele Romero, You've
swum a long way, baby, Ent. Wkly., Apr. 24, 1992, at 68.
622. Debra Gersh Hernandez, Government investigating ad campaign: Department of Justice investigation of Calvin Klein jeans advertisements for child pornography violations, Editor & Publisher, Sept. 16, 1995, at 36 (quoting Bruce Sanford).
623. See Ed Godfrey, Charges Reduced in Comics Case, Saturday Oklahoman, April 13, 1996, at 7.
624. See Michael Dean, Christian Moore talks about the horror story that scared the entire comics industry, Comics
Buyer's Guide, Oct. 17, 1997, at 6.
625. Godfrey, supra note 623, at 10.
626. See Dean, supra note 624, at 6.
627. See Chuck Shepherd, Loony toons: Florida puts the boot to a cartoonist. ('Boiled Angel' publisher Michael C. Diana), Playboy, Aug. 1994, at 41.
628. Id.
629. See id.
630. See Barry Brown, Canada to Sell Wine with Controversial Label, Buffalo News, May 5, 1996, at A8.
631. Balthasar Klossowski de Rola, a figurative painter of the mid-20th century admittedly known for his portraits of adolescent girls in "languidly erotic"
poses. See id.
632. Gulp! Wine's nude art stirs protest Balthus' depiction of a young nude is seen as child pornography by some activists, Atlanta J. & Atlanta Const., April 28, 1996, at B2.
633. The Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco and Firearms had not objected to the label. See Donald D. Breed, In a Lather Over the Label, Buffalo News, Feb. 28, 1996, at C3.
634. See Gerald D. Boyd, Winery Bows to Pressure, Replaces Label Showing Nude Girl, San Francisco Chron., Dec. 20, 1995, at 4ZZ1. Cf. supra note 619.
635. Larry Walker, The back page. (withdrawal of Chateau Mouton-Rothschild label in US market), Wines & Vines, Feb. 1, 1996, at 46.
636. See Alan Borovoy, It makes no sense to imperil artists like Eli Langer, Toronto Star, May 3, 1995, at A17.
637. See id.
638. See id.
639. Barry Brown, Ontario Court Clears Art of Pornography Charge, Buffalo News, April 23, 1995, at A7.
640. See Borovoy, supra note 636, at A17.
641. See Stephen Bindman, Punishing 'Recent Zephyr'; No jail time in first conviction for online kiddie porn,
Montreal Gazette, July 21, 1995, at A1. Among other mentions in the United States, Senator Orrin Hatch cited this case in proposing the Child Pornography Prevention Act of 1996. See Platt, supra note 490, § 2 (Net Sex) 91. Ironically, Canadian authorities had no concern about the portrait of a nude adolescent girl on the label of 1993 Chateau Mouton Rothschild. See Brown, supra note 630, at A8.
642. See Bindman, supra note 641, at A5.
643. See id. See also supra text accompanying note 463; Gary L. Gassman, Sysop, User and Programmer Liability: The Constitutionality Of Computer Generated Child Pornography, 13 J. Marshall J. Computer & Info. L. 481 (1995) (using similar scenario for moot court exercise).
644. See Bindman, supra note 641, at A5.
645. See id.
646. See id. (quoting Philip Enright).
647. See supra text accompanying notes 487-488, 490-491.
648. See Maria Seminerio, Is computer-generated kiddie porn protected speech? (last modified Aug. 8, 1997) <http://www.zdnet.com/zdnn/content/zdnn/0808/zdnn/0009.html>.
649. See Stephen Prizzo, DOJ cites Rimm Study to justify indecency clause (last modified Feb. 16, 1996) <http://webreview.com/96/02/16/news/ndn/doj.html> (citing Marty Rimm, Marketing Pornography on the Information Superhighway: A Survey of 917,410 Images, Descriptions, Short
Stories, and Animations Downloaded 8.5 Million Times By Consumers in Over 2000 Cities In Forty Countries, Provinces, and Territories, 83 Geo. L.J. 1849 (1995)). ACLU attorney Ann Beeson stated "[c]iting the Rimm study really shows how out to lunch and out of touch with the online community this administration really is." See id.
650. See Platt, supra note 490, § 2 (Net Sex) 7-41.
651. See 2 Scott, supra note 20, § 1030.
652. See supra text accompanying notes 221-225.
653. See 2 Scott, supra note 20, § 1030.
654. Fed R. Evid. 1001(3).
655. Platt, supra note 490, § 2 (Net Sex) 92 (quoting Joseph H. Allen). Indeed, in other times images of naked children encountered greater
tolerance: photographers included Lewis Carroll (the pen name of Charles Dodgson, author of Alice in Wonderland). See Soren, supra note 584, at A15. See also supra text accompanying note 493.
656. See Rimm, supra note 649, at 591.
657. The Child Pornography Prevention Act Of 1995 (statement of Frederick Schauer), supra note 384.
658. See Holding, supra note 607, at 4Z5.
659. See id.
660. See Handy, supra note 500, at 72.
661. See Ben MacIntyre, Stars of old set for hi-tech renaissance, S. China Morning Post, Mar. 15, 1994, at 3.
662. See Joseph, supra note 273, §8.04(3)
663. See infra text accompanying notes 710-711, 825-829.
664. See infra text accompanying notes 691, 735-738.
665. See infra text accompanying notes 741-742.
666. See, e.g., infra text accompanying note 829.
667. See Judith A. Silver, Note, A Bad Dream: In Search of a Legal Framework for Copyright Infringement Claims Involving
Digital Imagery in Motion Pictures, 35 IDEA: J.L. & Tech. 407, 415 (1995).
668. See Joseph J. Beard, Casting Call at Forest Lawn: The Digital Resurrection of Deceased Entertainers--A 21st Century Challenge for Intellectual Property Law, 8 High Tech. L.J. 101, 195 (1993). Without doubting the skill or sincerity of students, as one will see most of the papers that have been written
on the issue are notes and comments. Indeed, a few years earlier, the Copyright Office demonstrated an utter lack of foresight, finding no urgency in addressing digital resurrection, despite a mandate to report
on future technologies. See United States Copyright Office, Report of the Register of Copyrights (March 1989), reprinted in United States Copyright Office, Technological Alterations to Motion Pictures and Other Audiovisual Works: Implications for Creators, Copyright Owners,
and Consumers, 10 Loy. L.A. Ent. L.J. 1, 46 (1990). Scholars such as Beard himself similarly failed to anticipate the digital era, writing in 1980 that the resurrection
of digital celebrities was beyond even the "biblical magic of MGM." Beard, at 102.
669. See Johnson-Laird, supra note 230, at 11.
670. See Paul C. Weiler, Entertainment, Media, and the Law 361 (1997).
671. See Mitchell, supra note 34, at 214.
672. See Johnson-Laird, supra note 230, at 11.
673. See Handy, supra note 500, at 72.
674. See Daviss, supra note 238, at 56 (citing Steven Mayer).
675. See id.
676. See Silver, supra note 667, at 408.
677. See Denise Gellene, TV spots feature dead celebrities, Chicago Sun-Times, Sept. 15, 1997, at 53.
678. See Ad Strategies Seeking to Raise the Dead Marketing: Many companies are 'counting on a little irreverence,' but some
say the appeal may be short-lived, L.A. Times, July 8, 1997, at D13.
679. See id.
680. See Gellene, supra note 677, at 53.
681. See id.
682. See Legendary stars return - in commercials, Des Moines Register, July 25, 1997 at 6.
683. See Dna Smith, In a Virtual World, Who Owns the Virtual You?, Orlando Sentinel, Jan. 31, 1997, at X3.
684. See Ad Strategies Seeking to Raise the Dead, supra note 678, at D13.
685. See Eric Fisher, Ad buyers bet on winners Few icons new for Super Bowl, Wash. Times, Jan. 21, 1998, at B7. As this Paper was being completed, Tostitos launched a television ad campaign in which supposed comedian Chris Elliott visits the Beverly Hillbillies to launch Tostitos Nachos. This Author has always considered Elliott to be an example of a poorly-executed simulation of a real human being, however. See, e.g., New Frito-Lay chip designed for toppings, Dallas Morning News, March 25, 1998, at 10D.
686. See Weiler, supra note 670, at 361.
687. See id. at 170.
688. See id. at 361.
689. See id.
690. See id. at 170. As this Paper was being completed, CBS announced that to celebrate its 50th anniversary, shows airing in May 1998 which feature cameos from past stars, such as
Lucille Ball on The Nanny and Dick Van Dyke (of The Dick Van Dyke Show of the 1960s) on Diagnosis Murder (starring the Dick Van Dyke of the 1990s). See, e.g., Hal Boedeker, CBS celebrates its 50th with starry stunt, Boston Globe, April 16, 1998, at C18.
691. See infra text accompanying notes 735-738.
692. See Anna L. Kaplan, Trials and Tribble-ations, Cinefantastique, Nov. 1997, at 64-66, 69-70, 75-76, 79-80. One should also note that William Shatner, Leonard Nimoy, and DeForest Kelley are all still alive, although they took no part in the episode in their 1990s incarnations.
693. See Anthony DeStephano, Bringing Dead Actors to Life: Coming Soon: Bogart, Monroe?, Newsday, Sept. 22, 1994, at A20.
694. See Thomas Glenn Martin Jr., Comment, Rebirth and Rejuvenation in a Digital Hollywood: The Challenge Computer--Simulated
Celebrities Present for California's Antiquated Right Of Publicity, 4 UCLA Ent. L. Rev. 99, 104 (1996).
695. See Erin Giacoppo, Note, Avoiding the Tragedy of Frankenstein: The Application of the Right of Publicity to the Use of Digitally Reproduced Actors in Film, 48 Hast. L.J. 601, 604 (1997).
696. Means, supra note 1, at B1 (quoting Doug Magallon).
697. MacIntyre, supra note 661, at 3 (quoting Jim Morris).
698. See Handy, supra note 500, at 72.
699. Christopher Rose, Ghostly Images: The Newest Screen Stars Have One Thing in Common: Obituaries, New Orleans Times-Picayune, Mar. 1, 1997, at E1 (quoting Matt Hales).
700. See infra text accompanying notes 678-690. See also Giacoppo, supra note 695, at 606.
701. See id.
702. See Legendary stars return--in commercials, Des Moines Register, July 25, 1997, at 6.
703. See id.
704. See id. Cf. supra text accompanying note 258
705. See Legendary stars return--in commercials, supra note 702, at 6.
706. See supra text accompanying note 680.
707. See id.
708. See supra text accompanying note 682.
709. See id. The technology for simulating voices has been described as less advanced than that for visual images. See
Giacoppo, supra note 695, at 606.
710. See Guilshan, supra note 106, at 372.
711. See id.
712. See id.
713. See Johnson-Laird, supra note 230, at 10.
714. See id.
715. See Handy, supra note 500, at , at 72.
716. See DeStephano, supra note 693, at A20.
717. See id.
718. See Beard, supra note 668, at 104.
719. See DeStephano, supra note 693, at A20. No legal action was taken by the Monroe estate because the film was not utilized for commercial gain, one commentator recounts. See Pamela Lynn Kunath,
Note and Comment, Lights, Camera, Animate! The Right of Publicity's Effect on Computer-Animated Celebrities, 29 Loy. L.A. L. Rev. 863, 871 (1996).
720. See, e.g., Transom Technologies, How can humans improve the way you design, manufacture, and maintain your products? (n.d.) (on file with Author).
721. See, e.g., Genicom Consultants, human centered design (1995) (on file with Author).
722. Donna Coco, Creating Humans for Games, Computer Graphics World, Oct. 1997, at 26.
723. See DeStephano, supra note 693, at A20.
724. See Coco, supra note 722, at 26.
725. See id.
726. See id.
727. Id.
728. Id. at 29.
729. See id.
730. See id. at 31.
731. Current technology allows eight characters on a computer screen along with full-screen animated environment at 15 frames per
second on a monitor with 640 x 480 resolution and 24-bit color--approaching, and in some ways exceeding, television resolution
and quality. See id. at 30.
732. Id. at 30.
733. See id. at 31.
734. See Handy, supra note 500, at 72. Cf. supra text accompanying note 516.
735. See id.
736. Id. This technique appears to be a step between photogrammetry and pure mathematical modeling, although closer to the former than the latter. See Johnson, supra note
521, at 315.
737. See id.
738. Id. (quoting Paul Greenberg).
739. See Jefferson Graham, Remodeled 'Love Boat' comes out of dry dock, USA Today, Jan. 8, 1998, at 3D.
740. See id.
741. See Rose, supra note 699, at E1.
742. See id.
743. Id. (quoting Matt Hales).
744. See Don E. Tomlinson & Christopher R. Harris, Free-lance Photojournalism in a Digital World: Copyright, Lanham Act and Droit Moral Considerations plus a Sui Generis Solution, 45 Fed. Comm. L.J. 1, 27 n.137 (1992).
745. See id.
746. See Rose, supra note 699, at E1.
747. See Gellene, supra note 677, at 53.
748. See Tomlinson & Harris, supra note 744, at 27 n.137.
749. Silver, supra note 667, at 409 (citing Sony Corp. of America v. Universal City Studios, Inc., 464 U.S. 417, 429 (1984)).
750. See infra text accompanying notes 773-793.
751. See Johnson-Laird, supra note 230, at 14.
752. United States Copyright Office, supra note 668, at 100.
753. See infra text accompanying notes 762-769.
754. U.S. Const. art. I, § 8, cl. 8 ("To promote the progress of science and useful arts, by securing for limited times to authors and inventors
the exclusive right to their respective writings and discoveries").
755. See, e.g., Thomas K. Landry, Columbia-VLA Journal of Law & the Arts Roundtable on Electronic Rights, 20 Colum.-VLA J.L. & Arts 605, 620 (1996) (citing Stephen B. Davis).
756. See Tomlinson & Harris, supra note 744, at 26-27.
757. Rose, supra note 699, at E1.
758. See Elvis on the TV, Elvis On Ice, Other Incarnations May Be the Result of Deal, Wall Street Journal, May 12, 1997, at B6.
759. See id. Ava McKenzie stated that the "paltry, unconscionable commercials are the antithesis of everything my lovely,
gentle father represented." Skip Wollenberg, Super Bowl Ads Yield Fumbles, Scores, Sacramento Bee, Jan. 20, 1998, at E1.
760. See Gene Shalit, Dancing with the Devil, Star-Ledger (Newark, NJ), Jan. 29, 1997, at 14.
761. See Johnson-Laird, supra note 230, at 14.
762. See Michael Madow, Private Ownership of Public Image: Popular Culture and Publicity Rights, 81 Calif. L. Rev. 125, 161 (1993).
763. See generally id.
764. See id. at 128.
765. See id. at 193.
766. See id. at 138.
767. See id. at 134.
768. See id. at 145.
769. See id. at 194.
770. See Rose, supra note 699, at E1.
771. See Weiler, supra note 670, at 169. See also supra text accompanying notes 86, 717-719, infra text accompanying note 829.
772. Carolina Saez, Enforcing Copyrights in the Age of Multimedia, 21 Rutgers Computer & Tech. L.J. 351, 351 (1995). Only a few years earlier, one commentator stated that a celebrity's deceased
status was of no importance for publicity rights. See Madow supra note 762, at 144 n.75.
773. Commentators debate the ultimate purpose of publicity rights--e.g., moral rights, allocative efficiency, and consumer protection.
See Madow, supra note 762, at 178. This Paper does not consider the merits of the justification, or that debate, but merely assumes that the motivations
would/will remain constant in a digital world.
774. See, e.g., Martin Luther King, Jr. Center for Social Change v. American Heritage Products, Inc., 296 S.E.2d 697, 700 (Ga. 1982). See generally Madow, supra note 762, at 130 n.13.
775. See Giacoppo, supra note 695, at 612.
776. See Beard, supra note 668, at 150-55. See also infra notes 782-792.
777. See Ali v. Playgirl, 447 F. Supp. 723, 726 (S.D.N.Y. 1978).
778. See Midler v. Ford Motor Co., 849 F.2d 460 (9th Cir. 1988); Waits v. Frito-Lay, 978 F.2d 1093 (9th Cir. 1992).
779. See Carson v. Here's Johnny Portable Toilets, Inc., 698 F.2d 831 (6th Cir. 1983); Motschenbacher v. R. J. Reynolds Tobacco Co., 498 F.2d 821 (9th Cir. 1974); Onassis v. Christian Dior-New York, Inc., 472 N.Y.S.2d 254 (Sup. Ct. 1984); Hirsch v. S. C. Johnson & Son, Inc., 280 N.W.2d 129
(Wis. 1979). But see Tin Pan Apple, Inc. v. Miller Brewing Co., Inc., 737 F. Supp. 826 (S.D.N.Y. 1990).
780. Cf. Vanna White v. Samsung Electronics America, Inc., 971 F.2d 1395 (9th Cir. 1992) (celebrity depicted as a robot).
781. See Patti Hartigan, Asking face value A 'Pocahontas' model looks for recognition, Boston Globe, July 11, 1995, at 1.
782. See Kunath, supra note 719, at 876-77.
783. Cf. supra text accompanying note 685.
784. Tenn. Code Ann. §§ 47-25-1101 to 47-25-1108 (1997).
785. See Tenn. Code Ann. § 47-25-1104(a).
786. See Bill Ellis, Sensible Elvis Inc. Aims to Grow Rock-Solid Empire, Com. Appeal (Memphis, TN), Aug. 17, 1997, at A1.
787. See Martin Luther King, Jr. Center for Social Change v. American Heritage Products, Inc., 296 S.E.2d 697, 705 (Ga. 1982).
788. See Stephano v. News Group Publications, 474 N.E.2d 580, 583 (N.Y. App. Ct. 1984); Pirone v. MacMillan, 894 F.2d
579, 585 (2d Cir. 1990).
789. James Barr Haines, First Amendment II: Developments in the Right of Publicity, 1989 Ann. Surv. Am. L. 211, 215 (1990).
790. See Beard, supra note 668, at 147-50.
791. See MacIntyre, supra note 661, at 3.
792. See Beard, supra note 668, at 155.
793. See Martin, supra note 694, at 113
794. See id. (quoting Bruce Weber).
795. For a comprehensive summary of state publicity rights, see Madow, supra note 762, at 133 n.23.
796. See, e.g., id.
797. Smith, supra note 683, at X3.
798. See, e.g., MacIntyre, supra note 661, at 3.
799. Craig A. Wagner, Motion Picture Colorization, Authenticity, and the Elusive Moral Right, Note, 64 N.Y.U. L. Rev. 628, 636-38 (1989).
800. See Giacoppo, supra note 695, at 619-20.
801. Cal. Civil Code § 990(n)(1) (West 1997).
802. This section shall not apply to the use of a deceased personality's name, voice, signature, photograph, or likeness, in any
of the following instances:
(1) A play, book, magazine, newspaper, musical composition, film, radio or television program, other than an advertisement
or commercial announcement not exempt under paragraph (4).
(2) Material that is of political or newsworthy value.
(3)
Single and original works of fine art.
(4) An advertisement or commercial announcement for a use permitted by paragraph
(1), (2), or (3).
See id. § 990(n)(1).
803. See Martin, supra note 694, at 127-28. Similar exemptions exist in Nevada, Oklahoma, and Texas. See Kunath, supra note 719, at 884.
804. See Martin, supra note 694, at 130-31.
805. See Beard, supra note 668, at 157-58; Kunath, supra note 719, at 884.
806. See Giacoppo, supra note 695, at 628.
807. See Martin, supra note 694, at 132.
808. See Giacoppo, supra note 695, at 622.
809. See id. at 623.
810. See, e.g., Allen v. National Video, Inc., 610 F. Supp. 612 (S.D.N.Y. 1985).
811. See Giacoppo, supra note 695, at 623.
812. See id. at 628.
813. See Kunath, supra note 719, at 886.
814. See id. at 886.
815. See id. at 890.
816. See id. at 893. See also McFarland v. Miller, 14 F.3d 912, 921 (3rd Cir. 1994) ("[P]erformers were identified
with the image developed on-screen. Thus, the actor who developed the image had the right to exploit it as superior to third
parties which had nothing to do with the actor or the character identified with the actor."); supra text accompanying
notes 927-948.
817. See Beard, supra note 668, at 165.
818. See Carson v. Here's Johnny Portable Toilets, Inc., 698 F.2d 831, 838 (6th Cir. 1983).
819. See supra text accompanying notes 762-769.
820. See Carson, 698 F.2d at 839.
821. See Kunath, supra note 719, at 896, 901.
822. See id. at 900-01.
823. See Lugosi v. Universal Pictures, 603 P.2d 425, 446 (Cal. 1979) (Bird, C.J., dissenting).
824. See Beard, supra note 668, at 165. See also infra text accompanying note 829.
825. See MacIntyre, supra note 661, at 3.
826. See Tomlinson & Harris, supra note 744, at 27.
827. See id.
828. MacIntyre, supra note 661, at 3.
829. See id. Cf. supra text accompanying notes 86, 717-719, 771.
830. See Kunath, supra note 719, at 865.
831. See Madow supra note 762, at 156.
832. See id. at 200.
833. Tomlinson & Harris, supra note 744, at 27.
834. See Beard supra note 668, at 167.
835. See Giacoppo supra note 695, at 608.
836. Cf. supra note 71 (vanishing of Soviet luminaries after their deaths and/or discommendations).
837. But see Smith, supra note 683, at X3.
838. See Johnson-Laird, supra note 230, at 10.
839. See id. at 19. See also The middle age of the transistor, Economist, Jan. 3, 1998, at 77 ("Moore's Law" states that the number of transistors per chip doubles every 18 months). A similar rule predicts that prices for high-end
computers fall 33% every 12-18 months. See Johnson, supra note 521, at 316. One commentator in 1994 therefore predicted that "synthetic actors" would arrive on home computers in between 1999
and 2002. See id. See also supra text accompanying note 744.
840. See Johnson-Laird, supra note 230, at 19.
841. But see supra text accompanying notes 711-712.
842. The opportunity may be fleeting, if it is not already just about to be surpassed; other technological innovations, such as
the photocopier, raced ahead of the law. See Silver, supra note 667, at 410.
843. See Landry, supra note 755, at 605.
844. A more radical suggestion, beyond the scope of this Paper, is to introduce a new regime of moral rights, historically disfavored
in the United States. See, e.g., Beard, supra note 668, at 169.
845. 15 U.S.C. § 1125(a) (1997).
846. See William S. Coats & David H. Kramer, Not As Clean As They Wanna Be: Intermediate Copying in Campbell v. Acuff-Rose, 16 Hast. Comm./Ent. L.J. 607, 612 n.21 (1994) (citing Fuddruckers, Inc. v. Doc's B.R. Other, Inc., 826 F.2d 837, 843 (9th Cir. 1987)).
847. See Two Pesos, Inc. v. Taco Cabana, Int'l, Inc., 505 U.S. 763, 772 (1992).
848. See Romm Art Creations Ltd. v. Simcha Int'l, Inc., 786 F. Supp. 1126, 1130-31 (E.D.N.Y. 1992).
849. See supra text accompanying note 728.
850. E.g., a reanimation based on public domain images of a dead celebrity. The footage of Jimmy Stewart in It's a Wonderful Life, for example, is in the public domain, although Republic Pictures has blocked the airing of the film itself because Republic
owns the rights to the short story on which the film was based. See James Bates, Company Town; A Not-So-Wonderful
Copyright Issue, L.A. Times, Mar. 26, 1996, at 6.
851. See Coats & Kramer, supra note 846, at 612 n.21 (citing 15 U.S.C. § 1125(a) (1997)).
852. See id.
853. See Potter, supra note 34, at 497.
854. See Dartley, supra note 117, at 205.
855. See 82 F.2d 154 (2d Cir. 1936) (Hand, J.).
856. Id. at 155.
857. See, e.g., Russell v. Marlboro Books, 183 N.Y.S.2d 8 (Sup. Ct. 1959) (retouched photograph of model used in suggestive advertisement). One commentator has noted that a sort of alteration that might be
grounds for action are pornographic ones, although simple poor quality might also serve. See Beard, supra
note 668, at 187-88.
858. See id. at 156.
859. See, e.g., Moore v. Charles B. Pierce Film Enterprises Inc., 589 S.W.2d 489, 491 (Tex. Civ. App. 1979). Similarly,
defamation is a remedy for the living, see Giacoppo, supra note 695, at 609, although 10 states still have statutes that criminalize the libel of the dead, and three allow for civil actions,
see Beard, supra note 668, at 187.
860. 239 P.2d 630 (Cal. 1952).
861. See id. at 633.
862. See supra text accompanying note 741.
863. See, e.g., Potter, supra note 34, at 525-26.
864. See Landry, supra note 755, at 640-41.
865. See Beard, supra note 668, at 108.
866. 17 U.S.C. § 107 (1997).
867. 17 U.S.C. § 106(2) (1997).
868. See Niva Elkin-Koren, Copyright Law and Social Dialogue on the Information Superhighway: The Case Against Copyright
Liability of Bulletin Board Operators, 13 Cardozo Arts & Ent. L.J. 345, 392 (1995) ("copyright doctrine mediates public interest in the production of information and the public interest in
access to information").
869. See id.
870. See Mitchell, supra note 34, at 52.
871. See Beard, supra note 668, at 120.
872. See, e.g., Grand Upright Music v. Warner Brothers Records, 780 F. Supp. 182 (S.D.N.Y. 1991).
873. See Robert M. Szymanski, Audio Pastiche: Digital Sampling, Intermediate Copying, Fair Use, 3 UCLA Ent. L. Rev. 271, 284 (1996).
874. See id.
875. See id.
876. See id.
877. Cf. Cliff Notes, Inc. v. Bantam Doubleday Dell Publishing Group, Inc., 886 F.2d 490, 495 n.3 (1989) ("parody . . . must evoke the original").
878. See Johnson-Laird, supra note 230, at 18.
879. No. 94-1036 (S.D.N.Y., filed Feb. 16, 1994).
880. See Rafter & Coats, supra note 212, at 145-46.
881. See id.
882. See id.; Joshua Quittner, Far Out Welcome to Their World Built of MUD, Newsday, Nov. 7, 1993, at 3.
883. See Rafter & Coats, supra note 212, at 145-46..
884. See id.
885. See Seecof, supra note 240, at 397-98.
886. See Campbell v. Acuff-Rose, 510 U.S. 569 (1994).
887. See Coats & Kramer, supra note 846, at 608.
888. See id. at 611.
889. See id.
890. See id.
891. See id.
892. See generally Annalee Saxenian, Regional Advantage: Culture and Competition in Silicon Valley and Route 128, 30-34 (1994).
893. See, e.g., In the picture, Economist, Jan. 10, 1998, at 67 (discussing digital watermarks).
894. See Coats & Kramer, supra note 846, at 612.
895. See Mitchell, supra note 34, at 53.
896. See Coats & Kramer, supra note 846, at 624.
897. See id. at 614.
898. See id. at 617.
899. See Rafter & Coats, supra note 212, at 146.
900. See Kunath, supra note 719, at 902-03; Saez, supra note 772, at 295; Seecof, supra note 240, at 399.
901. See Silver, supra note 667, at 432.
902. See Kunath, supra note 719, at 904-05.
903. Cf. Jonathan A. Franklin, Digital Image Reproduction, Distribution and Protection: Legal Remedies and Industrywide
Alternatives, 10 Santa Clara Computer & High Tech. L.J. 347, 372 (1994).
904. See United States Copyright Office, supra note 668, at 107.
905. See Giacoppo, supra note 695, at 625.
906. See Szymanski, supra note 873, at 295.
907. See id.
908. See id. at 298.
909. See id. at 296.
910. See id.
911. See Coats & Kramer, supra note 846, at 618. A bill which would have explicitly extended copyright law to works transmitted by the Internet or other mediums such that a copy "is fixed beyond the place from which it was sent" died in committee in 1996, for example.
H.R. 2441, 104th Cong. (1996); S. 1284, 104th Cong. (1996). See also supra text accompanying notes 837-838.
912. Coats & Kramer, supra note 846, at 624.
913. See Seecof, supra note 240, at 396-97.
914. See, e.g., Knickerbocker Toy Company, Inc. v. Azrak-Hamway International, Inc., 668 F.2d 699 (2d Cir. 1982) (sample blister card utilizing artwork of competitor's
trademarked product held noninfringing).
915. See Rafter & Coats, supra note 212, at 139.
916. See supra text accompanying note 646.
917. See Johnson-Laird, supra note 230, at 18.
918. See id.
919. See id.
920. See Coats & Kramer, supra note 846, at 614.
921. 977 F.2d 1510 (9th Cir. 1993).
922. See id. at 1518.
923. See id. at 1518, 1527-28.
924. See Karen E. Georgenson, Comment, Reverse Engineering of Copyrighted Software: Fair Use or Misuse?, 5 Alb. L.J. Sci. & Tech. 291, 311-12 (1996).
925. See Coats & Kramer, supra note 846, at 618.
926. See Bleistein v. Donaldson Lithographing Co., 188 U.S. 239, 251 (1903) ("It would be a dangerous undertaking for
persons trained only to the law to constitute themselves final judges of the worth of pictorial illustrations, outside of
the narrowest and most obvious limits").
927. See generally Leslie A. Kurtz , The Independent Legal Lives of Fictional Characters, 1986 Wis. L.
Rev. 429 (1986).
928. See Nichols v. Universal Pictures Corp., 45 F.2d 119, 121 (2d Cir. 1930) ("the less developed the characters, the less they can be copyrighted").
929. See Walt Disney Productions v. Air Pirates, 581 F.2d 751, 754-55 (9th Cir. 1978) (distinguishing comic book and literary characters; for the former, there need not
be plot similarities to find infringement).
930. See DC Comics Inc. v. Unlimited Monkey Business, Inc., 598 F. Supp. 110 (N.D. Ga. 1984) (holding "Super Stud" to infringe Superman); Warner Bros., Inc. v. American Broadcasting Companies, Inc., 720 F.2d 231 (2d Cir. 1983) (holding "The Greatest American Hero" not to infringe Superman); Detective Comics, Inc. v. Bruns Publications, Inc., 111 F.2d 432 (2d Cir. 1940) (holding "Wonderman" to infringe Superman). More than a decade of litigation was generated by Fawcett Publications' Captain Marvel, which outsold Superman in the 1940s, until Fawcett settled and ceased publication in 1953. See, e.g., National Comics Publications, Inc. v. Fawcett Publications, Inc., 191 F.2d 594 (2d Cir. 1951). See generally Andrew Smith, SHAZAM! A new life begins
for Captain Marvel, Com. Appeal (Memphis, TN), Jan. 16, 1994, at F1.
931. See Giacoppo, supra note 695, at 621.
932. See, e.g., Miles Corwin, Eastwood No 'Dirty Harry' in Last Scene as Mr. Mayor, L.A. Times, April 10, 1988, at 3 (Eastwood is "best known as Dirty Harry Callahan, the surly police detective who carried a pistol the size of a dachshund. Dirty Harry was unaccustomed to patiently articulating his point of view and explaining his actions. If anyone disagreed with him he
could simply whip out his oversized .44-caliber pistol and blow them away.").
933. But that is not so for Eastwood the man. See, e.g., John Anderson, The Man Behind Dirty Harry / Separating Eastwood the actor from Eastwood the person isn't easy and may actually be impossible, given how long he's played the part, Newsday, Nov. 17, 1996, at C31 ("[I]f you're thinking about Eastwood the image, rather than Eastwood the man, [they are] flat-out contradictory"). Eastwood described his romantic role in The Bridges of Madison County as "closer to the real me than anything I've done." James Verniere, At Long Last Love After 40 years as a tough guy,
Clint Eastwood becomes a romantic hero, Boston Herald, May 28, 1995, at 51. His governing style as mayor of Carmel, California was one of "moderation and fairness." Philosophy of a small-town mayor, Tampa Trib., Dec. 25, 1997, at 18.
934. See, e.g., Robin Eggar, Pacino--Devil in disguise Drug baron, corrupt cop, killer--Al Pacino has always submerged himself into the roles from hell. Yet none compare to his latest incarnation: Satan. The star of 'The Devil's Advocate' bares his soul to Robin Eggar, Daily Telegraph (London), Jan. 10, 1998, (Magazine), at 30 ("All his career Al Pacino has been exploring the evil that men do").
935. Further, celebrities typically derive their fame from audiovisual performances; as such, although their characters would be
hybrids, they would more closely resemble pictorial than literary characters, and therefore merit a greater measure of legal
protection. Cf. Kurtz, supra note 927, at 467.
936. See id. at 430.
937. See Silver, supra note 667, at 419.
938. See Beard, supra note 668, at 117.
939. See id. at 129.
940. See Kurtz, supra note 927, at 470 (noting appearance of Bruce Weitz, "Mick Belker" of Hill Street Blues, in character in a Burger King commercial despite producers' objection). Humphrey Bogart, for example, presumably was unfettered even after Casablanca from appearing in film or television as a trenchcoated detective. see id.
941. See id. at 432.
942. See id. at 434.
943. See Beard, supra note 668, at 164.
944. A role Wayne actually played--less than convincingly--in the 1956 film The Conqueror.
945. See DeStephano, supra note 693, at A20.
946. See Mitchell, supra note 34, at 53.
947. See id.
948. See infra text accompanying note 949.
949. See Martin, supra note 694, at 133.
950. Means, supra note 1, at B1.
951. See id. See also supra text accompanying note 265-266.
952. See Means, supra note 1, at B1. See also supra text accompanying notes 264, 272.
953. See Means, supra note 1, at B1 (quoting Craig Denton). But see text accompanying notes 271-272.
954. Corn-Revere, supra note 419, at 264.
955. Lively, supra note 421, at 1072-73.
956. See Mutual Film Corp. v. Indust. Comm. of Ohio, 236 U.S. 230, 244 (1915); see also Mutual Film Co. v. Indust.
Comm. of Ohio, 236 U.S. 247 (1915); Mutual Film Corp. of Missouri v. Hodges, 236 U.S. 248 (1915).
957. Mutual Film Corp., 236 U.S. at 242. See also RD-DR Corp. v. Smith, 89 F. Supp. 596, 598 (N.D. Ga. 1950), United Artist
Corp. v. Board of Censors, 225 S.W.2d 550, 551-52 (Tenn. 1949).
958. See Joseph Burstyn, Inc. v. Wilson, 343 U.S. 495 (1952).
959. Laurence H. Tribe, The Constitution in Cyberspace, Humanist, Sept./Oct. 1991, at 21. Tribe proposed an amendment to the Constitution that would state:
This Constitution's protections for the freedoms of speech, press, petition, and assembly, and its protections against unreasonable searches
and seizures and the deprivation of life, liberty, or property without due process of law, shall be construed as fully applicable
without regard to the technological method or medium through which information content is generated, stored, altered, transmitted,
or controlled.
Anytime an individual or an institution or an invention leaps so far out ahead of that balance and throws a system,
whatever it might be--political, economic, technological--out of balance, you've got a problem, because then it can lead to
the oppression people's rights, it can lead to the manipulation of information, it can lead to all kinds of bad outcomes which
we have seen historically. So we're going to have to deal with that.
See Transcript of the First Lady's Press Briefing on Millennium Project (Part 2 of 5), U.S. Newswire, Feb. 11, 1998,
available in
Westlaw, 1998 WL 5682960.
960. See Lively, supra note 421, at 1075.
961. See Brandenburg v. Ohio, 395 U.S. 444, 447 (1969).
962. See Omega Satellite Prods. Co. v. City of Indianapolis, 694 F.2d 119, 128 (7th Cir. 1982).
963. Denver Area Educational Telecommunications Consortium, Inc. v. Federal Communications Commission, 116 S.Ct. 2374, 2385 (1996).
964. See Frederick Schauer, Free Speech and the Demise of the Soapbox, 84 Colum. L. Rev. 558, 572 (1984).
965. See Corn-Revere, supra note 419, at 284-85. Cf. Sony Corp. of America v. Universal City Studios, 464 U.S. 417 (1984).
966. 117 S.Ct. 2329 (1997).
967. Tony Mauro, Scenes From a Historic Week, Legal Times, June 30, 1997, at 8.
968. Daviss, supra note 238, at 58 (quoting David Zeltzer).
Introduction*Part I*Part II*Part III*Conclusion*Footnotes
