2. See infra text accompanying note 32.

3. See infra text accompanying notes 94-97.

4. Ray Jenkins, Special Counsel in the 1954 Army-McCarthy hearings, introduced a photograph of Secretary of the Army Robert Stevens posed alone with Private David Schine. Stevens' attorney, Joseph Welch, demonstrated that the photograph had been doctored, omitting two other figures. See Michael Straight, Trial by Television 40-47 (1954). Joseph McCarthy also previously masterminded the publication of a tabloid in October 1950, supposedly distributed by "Young Democrats for Butler," attacking Democratic Senator Millard Tydings: A front-page composite photograph depicted Tydings and ex-U.S. Communist Party leader Earl Browder in friendly conversation. See Jack Anderson & Ronald W. May, McCarthy: The Man, the Senator, the "Ism" 297-99 (1952).

5. See infra text accompanying notes 33, 154, 513-514, 738.

6. See infra text accompanying notes 181, 196.

7. See infra text accompanying notes 238-247.

8. No. 97-00281, 1997 WL 487758 (N.D. Calif. Aug. 12, 1997). See infra text accompanying notes 436-449.

9. 117 S.Ct. 2329 (1997). See infra text accompanying notes 503, 966.

10. Jean Davidson, Newspapers' Credibility Losing Focus? Altered Photographs Raise Questions, Chicago Trib., Feb. 20, 1994, at 6 (quoting Arthur Hochstein).

11. See infra note 217.

12. See infra text accompanying notes 150-157.

13. See infra text accompanying note 160.

14. Cf. infra text accompanying note 610.

15. See, e.g., Jonathan T. Lovitt & Richard Price, Focus back on shoes in O.J. trial, USA Today, Jan. 15, 1997, at 3A.

16. See Linda Deutsch, Photo of Simpson in Magli shoes probably forged, technician says, Boston Globe, Dec. 19, 1996, at A6.

17. See Stephanie Simon, Simpson Photo Analyst Assailed as Unreliable: Trial: Despite withering attack, witness refuses to back down from his stance that picture showing defendant in Bruno Magli shoes is fake, L.A. Times, Dec. 21, 1996, at B3. Groden conceded that a thin blue line between the edge of the photo negative and the film sprockets appeared on at least two other negatives, and "could be" caused by a scratch in the camera rather than by manipulation of the negative. See id.

18. Deutsch, supra note 16, at A6.

19. See Marshall Houts, Photographic Misrepresentation § 1.01 (1969).

20. See 1 Charles C. Scott, Photographic Evidence § 71 (2d ed. 1993).

21. See id.

22. See id. § 73.

23. See id. § 81.

24. See id. § 71.

25. See infra text accompanying notes 224-225.

26. See William J. Mitchell, When Is Seeing Believing?, Scientific American, Feb. 1994, at 70.

27. See Houts, supra note 19, § 1.02.

28. See id.

29. See infra text accompanying notes 34-57.

30. See Houts, supra note 19, § 1.01.

31. See id. § 1.04.

32. See id. § 3.03.

33. See Mitchell, supra note 26, at 69.

34. See Lisa Byrne Anastasio Potter, Note, Altered Realities: The Effect of Digital Imaging Technology on Libel and Right of Privacy, 17 Hast. Comm./Ent. L.J. 495, 499 (1995). Indeed, in 1988, Time was accused of digitally altering a cover image of Ronald Reagan, Mikhail Gorbachev, and George Bush, which was in fact simply taken from an unusual angle. See William J. Mitchell, The Reconfigured Eye 202 (1992).

35. See Benjamin V. Madison, III, Note, Seeing Can Be Deceiving: Photographic Evidence in a Visual Age--How Much Weight Does it Deserve?, 25 Wm. & Mary L. Rev. 705, 716 (1984).

36. See id. at 716.

37. See id. at 717.

38. See id.

39. See id.

40. See id.

41. See id. at 718.

42. See id.

43. See id. at 719.

44. See id. at 720.

45. See id.

46. See id. But see infra note 217.

47. See Evidence: Teaching Materials for An Age of Science and Statutes 248 (Ronald L. Carlson et al. eds., 4th ed. 1997).

48. Houts, supra note 19, § 11.02.

49. See Madison, supra note 35, at 721.

50. See id.

51. See id. at 722.

52. See id.

53. See id.

54. See John Henry Wigmore, The Science of Judicial Proof § 285 (3rd ed. 1937).

55. See Houts, supra note 19, § 11.03.

56. See id. § 11.05.

57. See 2 Scott, supra note 20, § 1045.

58. See infra text accompanying notes 160-199.

59. See 2 Scott, supra note 20, § 1045.

60. See 2 id. § 1050.

61. Houts, supra note 19, § 13.01. See also supra note 4.

62. See id.

63. See 2 Scott, supra note 20, § 1050.

64. See Madison, supra note 35, at 722.

65. See 2 Scott, supra note 20, § 1050. See also infra text accompanying notes 506, 528.

66. See 2 Scott, supra note 20, § 1050.

67. See Mitchell, supra note 26, at 70.

68. See id.

69. See id.

70. See id.

71. See id. There is irony in that the photograph was actually a doctored image of three Soviet farmers taken in 1923--from a time and place in which photographic forgery was common. See id. at 69-70. See generally Henry Holt, The Commissar Vanishes (1997). But see Alain Jaubert, Making People Disappear (1986) (noting that the Soviets and the Communist Bloc were not been unique in altering photographs for propaganda purposes).

72. See Mitchell, supra note 26, at 70.

73. See United States v. Kairys, 600 F. Supp. 1254, 1260 (N.D. Ill. 1984).

74. Id.

75. See id.

76. See id.

77. See Mitchell, supra note 26, at 70.

78. See id. at 73.

79. See id. at 71.

80. See id.

81. See id.

82. See id.

83. See id.

84. See id. at 73. N.B., this is not currently a requirement for the admission of a photograph. See infra text accompanying notes 166-170.

85. See Mitchell, supra note 26, at 73.

86. See id.

87. See Mitchell, supra note 34, at 33.

88. See Mitchell, supra note 26, at 73.

89. See David Sternbach, Note, Hanging Pictures: Photographic Theory and the Framing of Images Of Execution, 70 N.Y.U. L. Rev. 1100, 1102 (1995).

90. See id. at 1100.

91. See id.

92. See id.

93. See id. For a comprehensive review of theorists on the reliability of photographs, see Mitchell, supra note 34, at 23-30.

94. Time-Life Books, Frontiers of Photography 62 (1972).

95. See id. Cf. infra text accompanying notes 771, 876.

96. See id. at 78.

97. Id. at 86.

98. See Susan Sontag, On Photography 87-88 (1977).

99. See id. at 165.

100. See id. at 158.

101. See id.

102. See Lorraine Daston & Peter Galison, The Image of Objectivity, Representations, Fall 1992, at 98.

103. Id. at 120.

104. Id. at 103.

105. Id. at 111 (citing Richard Rudisill, Mirror Image: Influence of the Daguerreotype on American Society (1971)).

106. A Picture is Worth a Thousand Lies: Electronic Imaging and the Future of the Admissibility of Photographs into Evidence, 18 Rutgers Computer & Tech. L.J. 365, 365 (1992).

107. Sontag, supra note 98, at 5.

108. Id. at 20 (emphasis added).

109. See id. at 90.

110. See Daston & Galison, supra note 102, at 106.

111. Id. at 120.

112. See id. at 113-15.

113. See id. at 110.

114. See id. at 117.

115. See Sontag, supra note 98, at 22.

116. See id. at 105-06.

117. See Jon Lawrence Dartley, Note, Lost Horizons?: Tortious and Philosophical Implications Of Computer Imaging, 19 Rutgers Computer & Tech. L.J. 199, 218 (1993) (citing Walter Benjamin, The Work of Art in the Age of Mechanical Reproduction, in Illuminations 217 (Hannah Arendt ed. & Harry Zohn trans., Schocken Paperback 1969) (1955)).

118. Id. at 218-19.

119. See Sontag, supra note 98, at 11.

120. John Tagg, Burden of Representation 4 (1988).

121. Edward Weston, What Is Photographic Beauty?, 46 Camera Craft 254 (1939), reprinted in Photographers on Photography, at 154 (Nathan Lyons, ed., 1966).

122. Id.

123. 1 Scott, supra note 20, § 41.

124. See id.

125. See 1 id. § 42-47.

126. See 1 id. § 54.

127. Sontag, supra note 98, at 6-7.

128. See id. at 23.

129. See id. at 69.

130. See id.

131. Id. at 5.

132. See 1 Scott, supra note 20, § 1(A).

133. See id.

134. See Luco v. United States, 64 U.S. (23 How.) 515 (1860).

135. See 1 Scott, supra note 20, § 1.

136. See id. § 2.

137. 2 id. § 1001.

138. Franklin v. State, 69 Ga. 37, 43 (1882).

139. See 2 Scott, supra note 20, § 1001.

140. See Guilshan, supra note 106, at 366.

141. "'Relevant evidence' means evidence having any tendency to make the existence of any fact that is of consequence to the determination of the action more probable or less probable than it would be without the evidence." Fed R. Evid. 401.

142. "[A]ll relevant evidence is admissible, except as otherwise provided by the Constitution of the United States, by Act of Congress, by these rules, or by other rules prescribed by the Supreme Court pursuant to statutory authority. Evidence which is not relevant is not admissible." Fed R. Evid. 402.

143. "The requirement of authentication or identification as a condition precedent to admissibility is satisfied by evidence sufficient to support a finding that the matter in question is what its proponent claims." .

See Guilshan, supra note 106, at 366.

145. See id. at 367.

146. See id. at 367 n.16.

147. See id. at 367.

148. Fed. R. Evid. 401.

149. See Guilshan, supra note 106, at 367.

150. See Peter Murray, Basic Trial Advocacy 298 (1995).

151. See Federal Judicial Center, Manual for Complex Litigation, Third § 34.35 (1995).

152. See 2 Scott, supra note 20, § 1023.

153. Donald A. Weissman, Discovery: Auxiliary Aids, Exotic Evidence, And The Duty To Detail, Trial, June 1980, at 30.

154. Murray, supra note 150, at 292.

155. See Sontag, supra note 98, at 168.

156. "Although relevant, evidence may be excluded if its probative value is substantially outweighed by the danger of unfair prejudice, confusion of the issues, or misleading the jury, or by considerations of undue delay, waste of time, or needless presentation of cumulative evidence." Fed R. Evid. 403.

157. See 2 Scott, supra note 20, § 1001.

158. See id. § 1028.

159. Id.

160. Mauldin v. Upjohn Co., 697 F.2d 644, 648 (5th Cir. 1983) (quoting ).

See Guilshan, supra note 106, at 369.

162. See id.

163. See id.

164. See id.

165. See Evidence: Teaching Materials for An Age of Science and Statutes, supra note 47, at 248.

166. 9 Am. Jur. Proof of Facts 428 (1961).

167. See, e.g., United States v. Stearns, 550 F.2d 1167, 1170 (9th Cir. 1977).

168. .

See, e.g., People v. Slocum, 125 Cal. Rptr. 442, 456 (Cal. Ct. App. 1975).

170. See Murray, supra note 150, at 293.

171. See id. at 295.

172. See id. at 293.

173. See Kenneth B. Hughes & Benjamin J. Cantor, Photographs in Civil Litigation 64-65 (1973).

174. "To prove the content of a writing, recording, or photograph, the original writing, recording, or photograph is required, except as otherwise provided in these rules or by Act of Congress." http://www2.law.cornell.edu/cgi-bin/foliocgi.exe/fre/query=*/doc/{t283}/hit_headings/words=4/hits_only?Fed. R. Evid. 1002.

175. See Hughes & Cantor, supra note 173, at 37.

176. See id.

177. 3 John Henry Wigmore, Evidence at Common Law § 790 (1970) (emphasis omitted).

178. See 2 McCormick on Evidence § 214 (4th ed., John William Strong, ed. 1992).

179. See 3 Wigmore, supra note 177, § 790.

180. 2 Scott, supra note 20, § 1023.

181. See id.

182. See, e.g., Sisk v. State, 192 A.2d 108 (Md. 1963).

183. See 2 McCormick, supra note 178, § 214.

184. Bergner v. State, 397 N.E.2d 1012, 1016 (Ind. Ct. App. 1979).

185. Sisk v. State, 204 A.2d 684, 687-88 (Md. 1964).

186. See, e.g., John E. Mouser & James T. Philbin, Photographic Evidence--Is There a Recognized Basis for Admissibility?, 8 Hast. L.J. 310, 312-13 (1957).

187. See People v. Bowley, 382 P.2d 591, 595 (Cal. 1963). The court noted that Wigmore did not consider x-rays to be photographs, and thus not subject to the "pictorial testimony theory," but that other commentators disagreed. See id. at 595 n.5. See also supra notes 328-337. One should note that, if strictly interpreted, the pictorial testimony theory should not serve as a foundation for an unnoticed element of a photograph, but also that this distinction does not appear to have commonly been recognized in practice.

188. See, e.g., Mouser & Philbin, supra note 186, at 310.

189. Bergner, 397 N.E.2d at 1016.

190. See Bowley, 382 P.2d at 594. The court, citing People v. Doggett, 188 P.2d 792 (Cal. Dist. Ct. App. 1948) indicated that even if a photograph could not be authenticated by personal observation, an expert could do so, testifying that it had not been faked and was not a composite. See id. at 596.

191. See State v. Tatum, 360 P.2d 754, 756 (Wash. 1961).

192. 863 F.2d 1023 (D.C. Cir. 1988).

193. Bergner, 397 N.E.2d at 1017.

194. Tatum, 863 F.2d at 1027.

195. Id. at 1027 (quoting United States v. Blackwell, 694 F.2d 1325, 1330 (D.C. Cir. 1982)).

196. See Guilshan, supra note 106, at 370.

197. See id.

198. See Houts, supra note 19, § 26.01.

199. See infra notes 263-266. But see infra text accompanying note 518.

200. See Andrew Johnson-Laird, Smoking Guns and Spinning Disks, Computer Law., Aug. 1994, at 4. See also supra text accompanying note 185.

201. See supra text accompanying notes 116, 185.

202. See 2 McCormick, supra note 178, § 214.

203. See Hughes & Cantor, supra note 173, at 212-14.

204. See, e.g., Streit v. Kestel, 161 N.E.2d 409, 411 (Ohio App. 1959).

205. See Federal Judicial Center, supra note 151, § 34.35.

206. See id.

207. See Digital snap, Economist, Aug. 30, 1997, at 49.

208. See David Beckman & David Hirch, Digital Cameras Developing as Easy Way to Snap, Store and Send Pictures, ABA J., Mar. 1997, at 84.

209. See Mitchell, supra note 34, at 1.

210. See Sam J. Merrell, Digital Snapshots, Boston Phoenix, Sept. 19, 1997 (Digital Nation), at 13.

211. See id.

212. See Heather Dembert Rafter & William Sloan Coats, From Sampling of Artistic Works to Music Distribution on the Internet: The Effect of New Digital Technology on Copyright Law, in 17th Annual Institute on Computer Law: The Evolving Law of the Internet-Commerce, Free Speech, Security, Obscenity and Entertainment, at 140 (PLI Patents, Copyrights, Trademarks, and Literary Property Course Handbook Series No. 471, 1997).

213. See id.

214. See Merrell, supra note 210, at 13.

215. See Digital snap, supra note 207, at 49-50.

216. See Merrell, Digital Snapshots, supra note 210, at 13.

217. The development of color film photography itself was long and slow; the first appellate court case passing on the admissibility of color photographs as evidence did not come until 1943. See Green v. City and County of Denver, 142 P.2d 277 (Colo. 1943).

218. See Merrell, supra note 210, at 13. More expensive digital cameras use separate CCDs for each color, or three successive exposures through a filter of each color. See id.

219. See id.

220. See id. at 13-14. CCDs are expected to be replaced by CMOS (Complimentary Metal Oxide Semiconductor) chips which are less expensive to manufacture and require less power. See id. at 14.

221. See Beckman & Hirch, supra note 208, at 84.

222. See Digital snap, supra note 207, at 50.

223. See id. at 49.

224. See id.

225. See id. at 50.

226. See Merrell, supra note 210, at 13.

227. See 1 Scott, supra note 20, § 3.

228. See id.

229. See Mitchell, supra note 26, at 73. Cf. infra text accompanying notes 56-57.

230. See Andy Johnson-Laird, Multimedia and the Law, in Multimedia and the Law at 11 (PLI Patents, Copyrights, Trademarks, and Literary Property Course Handbook Series No. 383, 1994).

231. See Eastman Kodak Co., Digital Imagery in the Courtroom (visited Jan. 8, 1998) <http://www.kodak.de/US/en/cgs/law/filmdig/imagery.shtml>.

232. See Johnson-Laird, supra note 230, at 15.

233. The Child Pornography Prevention Act Of 1995: Hearings on S. 1237, Before the Senate Committee on the Judiciary (June 4, 1996) (statement of Bruce A. Taylor, President and Chief Counsel of the National Law Center for Children and Families), available in Westlaw, 1996 WL 10164796.

234. See Johnson-Laird, supra note 230, at 15.

235. See id.

236. See Mitchell, supra note 26, at 73.

237. For a detailed review of the techniques of digital manipulation, see Mitchell, supra note 34, at 23-30.

238. Bennett Daviss, Picture Perfect, Discover, July 1990, at 55.

239. See Johnson-Laird, supra note 230, at 12.

240. See Benjamin R. Seecof, Comment, Scanning into the Future of Copyrightable Images: Computer-Based Image Processing Poses a Present Threat, 5 High Tech. L.J. 371, 374 (1990).

241. See id. at 377.

242. See infra note 839.

243. See Guilshan, supra note 106, at 376.

244. Rafter & Coats, supra note 212, at 139.

245. See infra text accompanying notes 672, 732.

246. See infra text accompanying notes 71, 641-646.

247. See Daviss, supra note 238, at 56.

248. See Dartley, supra note 117, at 220-21.

249. See Richard Kammen & Herbert Blitzer, Ensure admissibility of Digital Images, Indiana Lawyer, Nov. 1, 1995, reprinted in Ensure admissibility of Digital Images (visited Jan. 8, 1998) <http://www.kodak.de/US/en/cgs/law/filmdig/establish.shtml>.

250. See Federal Judicial Center, supra note 151, § 34.35.

251. See Kammen & Blitzer, supra note 249.

252. See id.

253. See Dartley, supra note 117, at 202.

254. See id.

255. See Guilshan, supra note 106, at 372.

256. See Eastman Kodak Co., The Digital Camera as Forensic Tool (visited Jan. 8, 1998) <http://www.kodak.de/us/en/cgs/law/filmdig/tool.shtml>.

257. See id. Kodak notes that digital cameras require more accurate exposure measurement and control than film, but this is offset by the ease with which an image can be evaluated and immediately reshot. See Eastman Kodak Co., About Digital (visited Jan. 8, 1998) <http://www.kodak.de/us/en/cgs/law/filmdig/digital.shtml>.

258. See Kammen & Blitzer, supra note 249.

259. See id.

260. See Mitchell, supra note 34, at 210.

261. See Fred Ritchin, In Our Own Image 14 (1990).

262. See Mitchell, supra note 26, at 69.

263. See Daviss, supra note 238, at 56. The line between reality and digital forgery perhaps became even more blurred when, in September 1993, the scene became a reality, with Bill Clinton substituted for Reagan and Yitzhak Rabin for Shamir. See Mitchell, supra note 26, at 69.

264. See Mitchell, supra note 34, at 214.

265. Daviss, supra note 238, at 56.

266. See id. at 57.

267. See Mitchell, supra note 26, at 73.

268. See Dartley, supra note 117, at 219 (citing Walter Benjamin, The Work of Art in the Age of Mechanical Reproduction, in Illuminations 217 (Hannah Arendt ed. & Harry Zohn trans., Schocken Paperback 1969) (1955)).

269. One should also ponder the specter of altered photographs later being introduced in a legal proceeding, such as to serve as evidence of attendance at a meeting of a board of directors. See supra text accompanying note 264.

270. Daviss, supra note 238, at 57.

271. Id.

272. Mitchell Stephens, What's Fair in Changing Photos? Let Pictures Speculate, Just Like Words, Newsday, Feb. 24, 1994, at 115.

273. "[T]he technology of computer enhanced imagery is . . . undeveloped as a matter of reported case law in its non-medical applications." Gregory P. Joseph, Modern Visual Evidence § 8.04(1) (1997).

274. See Mitchell, supra note 34, at 7.

275. See id. at 19.

276. See Mitchell, supra note 26, at 73.

277. See Rafter & Coats, supra note 212, at 139.

278. See Mitchell, supra note 34, at 225.

279. See 1 Scott, supra note 20, § 3.

280. See id. § 3.

281. See Federal Judicial Center, supra note 151, § 34.35.

282. See Guilshan, supra note 106, at 378.

283. See infra text accompanying notes 651-654.

284. R. Bruce Beckner, Advance Sheet, 22 Litigation 57, 59 (1996).

285. Id.

286. See Beckner, supra note 284, at 59.

287. See Fed. R. Evid. 1001(3) ("If data are stored in a computer or similar device, any printout or other output readable by sight, shown to reflect the data accurately, is an 'original.'").

288. See Guilshan, supra note 106, 375-76.

289. See Beckner, supra note 284, at 59-60.

290. See id. at 60. See infra text accompanying notes 56-57.

291. See 28 U.S.C. § 2076 (1997).

292. See Guilshan, supra note 106, at 378.

293. See id.

294. See Potter, supra note 34, at 503-04. Potter states that of particular concern are causes of action in which the truth is especially critical, such as libel. See id. at 505.

295. See supra text accompanying note 181.

296. See Hampton Dellinger, Words Are Enough: The Troublesome Use of Photographs, Maps, and Other Images in Supreme Court Opinions, 110 Harv. L. Rev. 1704, 1750 (1997).

297. See id. For example, in Capitol Square Review and Advisory Board v. Pinette, 115 S. Ct. 2440, 2474 (1995) (Stevens, J., dissenting), a photograph was attached to a dissenting opinion. The low angle from which the picture was shot allegedly makes a ten-foot Latin cross appear substantially taller than it is. See Dellinger, supra note 296, at 1707.

298. See Murray, supra note 150, at 295. See also supra text accompanying notes 146-157.

299. See Potter, supra note 34, at 504.

300. See Guilshan, supra note 106, at 378.

301. See id. at 379.

302. See id.

303. See Dartley, supra note 117, at 215.

304. See 2 McCormick, supra note 178, § 214. See also supra text accompanying notes 202-204.

305. See Hughes & Cantor, supra note 173, at 212-14.

306. See supra text accompanying notes 150-159.

307. See Sternbach, supra note 69, at 1102.

308. See id.

309. See Madison, supra note 35, at 715.

310. See Guilshan, supra note 106, at 379.

311. See supra text accompanying note 187.

312. See Federal Judicial Center, supra note 151, § 34.35.

313. See, e.g., Commonwealth v. Roller, 100 Pa. Super. 125, 127 (1930).

314. See McGoorty v. Benhart, 27 N.E.2d 289, 293, 295 (Ill. App. Ct. 1940).

315. See, e.g., Haley v. Haley, 103 N.Y.S.2d 717, 718-19 (Sup. Ct. 1950).

316. Houts, supra note 19, § 11.10.

317. See Eastman Kodak Co., supra note 249. See also supra text accompanying notes 345, 353.

318. See Federal Judicial Center, supra note 151, § 34.35.

319. See Sternbach, supra note 69, at 1139.

320. See id.

321. See id.

322. See id.

323. See id. at 1140.

324. See id. at 1139.

325. See id.

326. See 3 Wigmore, supra note 177, § 792.

327. See Guilshan, supra note 106, at 379.

328. See 3 Wigmore, supra note 177, § 795.

329. Id. § 795.

330. See id. § 795a

331. See id. § 795.

332. See id.

333. See id.

334. See id.

335. See Madison, supra note 35, at 741.

336. See Frye v. United States, 293 F. 1013 (D.C. Cir. 1923).

337. See Vicki S. Menard, Admission of Computer Generated Visual Evidence: Should There Be Clear Standards?, 6 Software L.J. 325, 335 (1993).

338. See Mitchell, supra note 34, at 30.

339. See supra text accompanying note 170.

340. See Kammen & Blitzer, supra note 249.

341. See id. A further aid is the use of CD-ROMs with embedded serial numbers; unlike rolls of film, it would be virtually impossible to substitute an altered disc. See id.

342. See id.

343. See id. See also supra text accompanying notes 145, 150-152.

344. See Kammen & Blitzer, supra note 249.

345. Tagg, supra note 120, at 95-96 (quoting H. Pountney, Police Photography 3 (1971)).

346. See supra text accompanying notes 256-258.

347. Eastman Kodak Co., supra note 231.

348. See Eastman Kodak Co., supra note 249. See also Bill Callahan, Trial opens in fatal beatings of women, San Diego Union & Trib., Oct. 3, 1995, at B3.

349. See Eastman Kodak Co., Forensic Imaging Case Studies (visited Jan. 8, 1998) <http://www.kodak.de/us/en/cgs/law/filmdig/forensic.shtml>.

350. See id.

351. See id.

352. See id. See also Kevin Ebi, Neighbor Is Found Guilty in Slaying of College Student: Case Focused on Enhanced Palm Print, Seattle Times, Jan. 10, 1996, at B1; Kevin Ebi, Bloody Print Is Trial Focus, Seattle Times, Dec. 12, 1995, at B1.

353. See Eastman Kodak Co., supra note 349.

354. See Mitchell, supra note 34, at 51.

355. See id. at 196; James Black, The Spirit-Photograph Fraud, Sci. Am., Oct. 1922, at 224. No less an authority on detective work than Arthur Conan Doyle was taken in by spirit photographers. See id.

356. See Brief of the American Civil Liberties Union, et al., as Amici Curiae, at 14, Free Speech Coalition v. Reno (9th Cir., filed Sept. 26, 1997) (No. 97-16536).

357. This Paper does not attempt to review all law regarding child pornography, but merely that portion of it which is most relevant for digital imaging. For a more expansive review, see, e.g., Jeffrey Gold et al., Comment, Brief for Petitioner, The Thirteenth Annual John Marshall Law School National Moot Court Competition in Information Technology and Privacy Law, 13 J. Marshall J. Computer & Info. L. 505 (1995).

358. See infra text accompanying notes 430-432, 462-463.

359. See infra text accompanying notes 363-386.

360. See infra text accompanying notes 436-449, 487-488, 490-491.

361. See infra text accompanying note 617.

362. See Pub. L. No. 95-225, 92 Stat. 7 (1978).

363. See 458 U.S. 747 (1982).

364. See Brief of the American Civil Liberties Union, supra note 356, at 13.

365. Ferber, 458 U.S. at 758-59.

366. See id.

367. See id.

368. Id. at 765. The court did, however, note that a secondary justification for a ban on child pornography was its potential use by abusers to weaken the inhibitions of other children. See id. at 759.

369. See id. at 763.

370. Id.

371. Id. at 762.

372. See Brief of the American Civil Liberties Union, supra note 356, at 13. But see infra text accompanying note 619.

373. See Pub. L. No. 98-292, 98 Stat. 204 (1984).

374. In December 1997, Massachusetts became the 43rd state to criminalize possession of child pornography. See Doris Sue Wong, Tougher child porn law applauded, Boston Globe, Dec. 12, 1997, at B8.

375. 495 U.S. 103 (1990).

376. See id. at 111.

377. Id.

378. Id. at 103.

379. See id. at 111 n.7 (citing Dep't of Justice, Attorney General's Commission on Pornography, Final Report 649 (1986) ("A child who is reluctant to engage in sexual activity with an adult or to pose for sexually explicit photos can sometimes be convinced by viewing other children having 'fun' participating in the activity")). See also supra note 368.

380. 503 U.S. 540 (1992).

381. See id. at 548-49.

382. 513 U.S. 64 (1994).

383. See id. at 72.

384. The Child Pornography Prevention Act Of 1995: Hearings on S. 1237 Before the Senate Committee on the Judiciary (June 4, 1996) (statement of Frederick Schauer, Frank Stanton Professor of the First Amendment at the Kennedy School of Government, Harvard University, and Visiting Professor of Law, Harvard Law School), available in Westlaw, 1996 WL 10164718.

385. State v. Stoneman, 920 P.2d 535, 540 (Or. 1995).

386. Id. at 540 n.3. The dissent, however, argued that "simulations" should be understood to include footage of actual children who had not engaged in sexual conduct, but only had been made to seem so. "For example, a film may portray a realistic image of what appears to be a sexual act by a child when, in reality, the image is a mere simulation created from film of an actual child innocently playing, dancing, or sleeping while fully clothed. In that circumstance, the conduct of both the child and film producer is perfectly lawful and not harmful to the child." Id. at 554 (Durham, J., dissenting).

387. See generally Philip Noble & Eric Nadler, United States of America vs. Sex: How the Meese Commission Lied About Pornography (1986).

388. See Dep't of Justice, supra note 379, at 405 n.70.

389. See id., at 410-13.

390. Id. at 405.

391. Ronald W. Adelman, The Constitutionality of Congressional Efforts to Ban Computer-Generated Child Pornography: A First Amendment Assessment of S. 1237, 14 J. Marshall J. Computer & Info. L. 483, 491 (1996).

392. See Dep't of Justice, supra note 379, at 405.

393. See id. at 411.

394. See id.

395. See id. at 406.

396. See id. at 411.

397. See id. at 412-13.

398. See 458 U.S. at 759.

399. See 495 U.S. at 111 n.7.

400. See Child Pornography Prevention Act of 1995, S. Rep. 104-358, at 12 (1996).

401. Dep't of Justice, supra note 379, at 411 n.74.

402. See The Child Pornography Prevention Act Of 1995 (statement of Bruce A. Taylor), supra note 233.

403. See The Child Pornography Prevention Act Of 1995 (statement of Frederick Schauer), supra note 384.

404. See Dep't of Justice, supra note 379, at 412.

405. See id.

406. See, e.g., T.J. Hiles, Comment, Civil Forfeiture of Property for Drug Offenders Under Illinois and Federal Statute: Zero Tolerance, Zero Exceptions, 25 J. Marshall L. Rev. 389, 410 (1992).

407. See supra text accompanying note 529.

408. See Felice Flannery Lewis, Literature, Obscenity, and Law 225 (1976).

409. See Kaplan v. California, 413 U.S. 115, 118-19 (1973).

410. See Lewis, supra note 408, at 225.

411. See Jeffrey J. Kent & Scott D. Truesdell, Spare the Child: The Constitutionality of Criminalizing Possession of Child Pornography, 68 Oregon L. Rev. 363, 370 (1989) (citing United States v. Langley, No. 86-60010 (D. Or. Jan. 16, 1987)).

412. See infra text accompanying notes 515-517.

413. See Russell W. Galloway, Basic Free Speech Analysis, 31 Santa Clara L. Rev. 883, 900 (1991).

414. See id.

415. Kent & Truesdell, supra note 411, at 365 n.8.

416. See Kenneth V. Lanning, Collectors, in Child Pornography and Sex Rings 83 (Ann Wolbert Burgess, ed. 1984).

417. See id.

418. See id.

419. See, e.g., Robert Corn-Revere, New Technology and the First Amendment: Breaking the Cycle of Repression, 17 Hast. Comm./Ent. L.J. 247, 277-78 (1994).

420. Professor Richard H. Fallon, Jr. of Harvard Law School, who was a clerk to Justice Powell when Ferber was before the Court, often has recounted to his classes that he recommended against granting certiorari, because the assertion that child pornography was a separate proscribable category under the First Amendment was without merit; the Justices disagreed, 9-0.

421. Donald E. Lively, Fear and the Media: A First Amendment Horror Show, 69 Minn. L. Rev. 1071, 1096 (1985). See also infra text accompanying notes 487-488, 490-491.

422. Pub. L. 104-208, 110 Stat. 3009-26 (1996).

423. 18 U.S.C. § 2256 (1997).

424. See 18 U.S.C. § 2256 (1997).

425. See 18 U.S.C. § 2252A(c) (1997) (an affirmative defense lies if "(1) the alleged child pornography was produced using an actual person or persons engaging in sexually explicit conduct; (2) each such person was an adult at the time the material was produced; and (3) the defendant did not advertise, promote, present, describe, or distribute the material in such a manner as to convey the impression that it is or contains a visual depiction of a minor engaging in sexually explicit conduct").

426. See 720 Ill. Comp. Stat. Ann. 5/11-20 (West 1997), amended by 1997 Ill. Leg. Serv. P.A. 90-68 (West). Canada and the United Kingdom also have adopted similar legislation. See Jennifer Stewart, Comment, If This Is the Global Community, We Must Be on the Bad Side of Town: International Policing of Child Pornography on the Internet, 20 Hous. J. Int'l L. 205, 218 & nn.88-89 (1997)

427. See John Schwartz, New Law on 'Virtual' Child Porn Is Criticized: Legitimate Works May be at Risk, Seattle Times, Oct. 6, 1996, at A24.

428. See Senate Panel Backs Hatch's Anti-Kiddie-Porn Bill, Salt Lake Trib., July 26, 1996, at A19.

429. Id.

430. Biden's Legislation to Crack Down on Child Pornography, to Give Longer Prison Sentences for Rape, Become Law, Gov't Press Releases, Oct. 4, 1996, available in Westlaw, 1996 WL 11125623.

431. See id. See also infra text accompanying notes 463, 643.

432. Id.

433. See 142 Cong. Rec. S11,900 (daily ed. Sept. 30, 1996) (statement of Sen. Biden).

434. See supra notes and text accompanying notes 422-425.

435. See Child Pornography Prevention Act of 1995, S. Rep. 104-358, supra note 400, at 31. The only members of the Senate Committee on the Judiciary to doubt the constitutionality of and oppose the Act outright were Russell Feingold (D-WI) and Paul Simon (D-IL).

436. No. 97-00281, 1997 WL 487758 (N.D. Cal. Aug. 12, 1997). The case is currently on appeal in the Ninth Circuit. Maria Seminerio, ACLU, others file appeal to simulated online kiddie porn law (last modified Sept. 30, 1997) <http://www.zdnet.com/zdnn/content/zdnn/0930/zdnn/0006.html>. But see infra note